Rape Rates Research Articles

Crime Rates in India

This study presents the trend analyses of police-recorded crime data in India. We demonstrate the long-term trends of serious violent and property crimes and examine whether the crime trend in India follows the global crime trend, especially the declining trend in the United States and West European countries. By examining the peaks, troughs, and turning points, this study examines the similarities and differences in long-term trends between different crime types. The data for our study are drawn from Crime in India, an annual publication by the National Crime Record Bureau of India. The results suggest that rates of murder, robbery, burglary, theft, and rioting follow declining trends, while rates of rape show an increasing trend between 1971 and 2011. The homicide trend is the only crime category following the global crime trend. While recognizing the universal and India-specific limitations of the police-recorded crime data, we want readers to consider the findings of the study with caution. We strongly recommend that India establish a national crime victimization survey and regularly participate in the International Crime Victimization Survey.

The 'Zero Tolerance Village Alliance': A promising intervention for addressing sexual and gender-based violence in rural communities

Background Worldwide, few countries have higher rates of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) than South Africa [1]. From 2013 to 2014 alone, nearly 50,000 rape incidents were reported to the police in the country [2]. This predicament affects the young and the old: the majority of sexual violence survivors presenting at Thuthuzela Care Centers are less than 18 years of age (60%), and 40% of all rape survivors are pre-teens under the age of 12 [1]. Nonetheless, annual reporting rates of rape in the country are comparatively low, with only 1 in 9 rapes reported each year [3]. Furthermore, the issue of sexual violence in South Africa is compounded by the linkages between such violence and HIV seropositivity [4]. Given these realities, this study sought to assess the effects of an intervention geared toward positively influencing negative community norms related to SGBV.

What is the Relationship between Unemployment and Rape? Evidence from a Panel of European Regions

This paper empirically analyzes the relationship between unemployment and rape in a panel of European regions. Results show that rape and unemployment are positively associated. Results are robust using alternative dependent variables, namely (i) the count of rape; (ii) the rape rate per 100,000 people. When applying gender-specific measures, only total female unemployment appears to explain the positive association. Yet, the main findings are confirmed when using youth unemployment. Interestingly, only male youth unemployment seems to explain the positive association between rape and youth unemployment. Among control variables, interestingly, education is positively associated with rape. The reasonable interpretation is that education does not increase rape in itself but rather ‘reported rape’. As expected, measures of future economic opportunities are negatively associated with emergence of rape.

Social Psychological Processes that Facilitate Sexual Assault within the Fraternity Party Subculture

AbstractRape on the college campus has gained increasing amounts of attention in higher education, mainstream news, and public policy. The prevalence rates of rape are especially high among students who frequent campus parties, such as those hosted by fraternities. Researchers have described this increased risk by focusing on individual attitudes and behaviors of fraternity members or on the organizational norms and practices within the fraternity party subculture. To incorporate these studies into a single theoretical framework, this essay uses a social psychological approach to connect individual‐level attitudes, (sub)culture, and behavior. I describe and apply identity theory and affect control theory, two structural symbolic interactionist theories, to explain why certain men are drawn to high‐risk fraternities and how membership reinforces hostility toward and abuse of women. In doing so, I suggest several avenues for future research that would increase social psychological understanding of the heightened prevalence of sexual victimization within the fraternity party subculture.

The effects of sport participation on gender relations: Case studies of female footballers in Johannesburg and Cape Town, South Africa

ABSTRACTSouth Africa has progressive political policies concerning women with a high percentage of women in political positions, while simultaneously having some of the worst indicators of gender relations internationally, including high rates of rape and domestic violence. This article examines how participation in football can challenge hegemonic masculinity in South African society and sport through comprehensive case studies of women's football in the townships of Johannesburg and Cape Town. Internationally, sport has demonstrated a positive effect on improving gender relations. This includes opportunities for women to gain self-esteem and confidence, have constructive interactions with men, and challenge unequal gender norms. However, sport can contribute to the ostracisation of women and further entrench male hegemony. A mixed methods approach was used to collect case studies of 21 female footballers involving 81 interviews of players, household members, coaches, and administrators in addition to 33 focus groups with players and peers. Gender relations are discussed on three levels: macro – access to national positions of authority and financial resources; meso – access to community facilities and school opportunities as well as changed perceptions and team acceptance of alternative sexualities; and micro – effects on interpersonal relationships, individual educational opportunities, and division of household labour. Past research provides an overview of these three levels relating to hegemonic masculinity within the general South African society and how sport can address these issues. More longitudinal research is needed to determine whether these changes are significant enough to make long-term differences and have an effect on gender relations in the larger South African society.

Sexual Assault and Rape in the Military: The Invisible Victims of International Gender Crimes at the Front Lines

In the past several years in particular, intra-military sexual assault and rape in the U.S. armed forces have been the focus of frequent media attention and intense congressional debate. Despite reforms, the rate of intra-military sexual crimes continues to remain high, as does soldiers’ wariness to report instances of sexual violence to military commanders. These problems and others have invigorated the position taken by some that outside judicial review of intra- military sexual crimes is necessary to provide justice to victims and lower the rate of intra-military sexual assault and rape. This Note argues that one of the primary contributors to intra-military sexual assault and rape is the gendered nature of the military itself. Given the nature of these acts, intra-military sexual assault and rape can be properly qualified as “gender crimes.” This Note also points out that this problem is not unique to the United States, as other militaries around the world struggle with intra-military sexual violence. Due to this widespread occurrence and international human rights laws prohibiting rape and gender-based violence more generally, this Note argues that intra-military sexual assault and rape should be viewed as international gender crimes in violation of international customary law. It is theorized that recognizing intramilitary sexual assault and rape in this manner can bring greater attention to these crimes and help push for independent judicial review of intra-military sexual crimes on the domestic level worldwide.

SEQUESTRACE UHLÍKU V AGROEKOSYSTÉMU

Reduction of amount CO2 is possible by carbon sequestration to the soil. Fixation potential of EU–15 agricultural land is c. 16–19 mil t C . year−1. Amount and composition of post–harvest residues is essential for carbon soil sequestration. Long–term yield series of the most planted crops (winter wheat – Triticum aestivum, spring barley – Hordeum vulgare, corn and silage maize – Zea mays, winter rape – Brassica napus, potatoes – Solanum tuberosum, sugar beet – Beta vulgaris, alfalfa – Medicago sativa, red clover – Trifolium pratense, white mustard – Sinapis alba and fiddleneck – Phacelia tanacetifolia) in various agroecological conditions and growing technologies were used for carbon balance calculation. The carbon balances were calculated for main crop rotations of maize, sugar beet, cereal and potato production regions (24 crop rotations). The calculations were realized for following planting varieties: traditional, commercial, ecological and with higher rate of winter rape. All chosen crop rotations (except seven) have positive carbon balance in the tillage system. Amount of fixed carbon might be increases about 30% by the use of no–tillage system. Least amount of carbon is fixed by potatoes, high amount by cereals, alfalfa and sugar beet. For a short time (months) the crops sequestration of carbon is relatively high (to 4.4 t . ha−1 . year−1) or to 5.7 t . ha−1 . year−1 for no–tillage system. From the long time viewpoint (tens of years) the data of humified carbon in arable soil (max 400 kg C . ha−1 . year−1) are important. Maximal carbon deficit of chosen crop rotation is 725 kg C . year−1.

Violent Female Victimization Trends across Europe, Canada, and the United States

Little work has sought to establish whether the homicide decline is affecting both male and female victims, and in the same or different ways, and whether patterns vary between countries. Little cross-national work has been done to establish whether rape rates are generally rising or falling and to explain similarities and differences between countries. The picture for homicide is straightforward. Rates are falling almost everywhere but usually more rapidly for men. The rape picture is complex, varies between countries, and often looks different depending on whether official or victimization data are consulted. In the United States, both show declines. Victimization data in Canada and Sweden show stable rates, though official data show declines in Canada and steep rises in Sweden. No generalizations can be offered about common, cross-national trends in rape. Much more can be learned. Focusing on gender differences in crime victimization demonstrates that they exist and need explanation. Both general and gender-specific theories must be considered if long-term trends are to be understood.

Domestic Sexual Violence and Sexual Problems Among Gynecology Outpatients: An Example from Turkey

Domestic violence is a universal problem, and sexual violence in marriage, in particular, is a hidden form of it. This descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted to determine to the prevalence of domestic sexual violence by husbands, the prevalence of sexual problems, and the relation of these among married women attending a gynecology outpatient clinic. This study was performed in a university hospital in Turkey and data were collected February–April 2009. The study sample consisted of 200 married women, 53% of whom reported having been exposed to at least one type of domestic sexual violence behaviors by their husbands. Among those behaviors, the rate of marital rape was 33%. The frequency of experiencing any sexual problem was 82%. Women expressed that they mostly had orgasmic problems, and their husbands had premature ejaculation problems. The majority of women who reported sexual violence reported experiencing sexual problems; the frequency of sexual problems was higher in the participants who did (94.3%) than in those who did not report (68.1%) sexual violence (p < .001). Bad sexual harmony (Odds ratio [OR] = 13.50, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.87−47.01) and experiencing sexual problems (OR = 12.67, 95% CI = 3.78−42.35) were strongly related to sexual violence in marriage. The results also revealed that the prevalence of sexual violence and sexual problems among those married women who attended gynecology clinics was considerable, even though they did not report this to the health care provider as a problem.

High planting density benefits to mechanized harvest and nitrogen application rates of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)

To evaluate the effects of planting density and nitrogen (N) application rate on agronomic characters, yield and N use of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), a split plot experiment was carried out. Two planting densities (1.5 × 105 plant ha−1 and 4.5 × 105 plant ha−1 as main plots) and four N rates (0, 90, 180 and 270 kg ha−1 as sub plots) were designed for two cultivars of Brassica napus. Results indicate that increased planting density could lead to decreased plant height, branch number, canopy layer thickness, effective siliques per plant and harvest index, while branch height and N use efficiency increase. Under a single density, plant height, branch height, branch number, effective siliques per plant and yield increased with increased N application, but the oil content and N use efficiency decreased. For the same target yield (plateau yield) obtained in low-density planting, the N fertilizer requirement decreased by 22.8% and 25.4% in high-density planting in two experimental sites. On the whole, these results demonstrate that increased plant density can improve rape adaptability for mechanized harvest by regulating plant structure, decreasing the N requirement for reaching a target yield and increasing N use efficiency.

Sexual Crime in India: Is it Influenced by Pornography?

Purpose:Studies on whether pornography poses a greater risk for sexually aggressive behavior have revealed conflicting results. This study aims to examine the relationship between the consumption of pornography and the subsequent increase in sexual violence, thus testing the hypothesis that increase in consumption of pornography is related to increased sexual crime, in the Indian scenario.Materials and Methods:The current study explored the association between reported incidence of crime over a period of four decades - 1971-2008 (time periods being divided into: Pre-liberalization and post-liberation - India adopted liberalization policy in 1992) and availability of pornography over internet with a particular focus on crime against women (such as rape, sexual harassment, and crime against women).Results:Comparison of pre-liberalization and post-liberalization growth of rape rates was not significant. Though there were statistically significant positive correlations between the number of internet users and sexual crime rates, the association was non-significant after controlling for the effects of population growth using regression analysis.Conclusion:Results presented needs to be interpreted with extreme care and caution. Nevertheless, the results from this study suggest that easy access to pornography did not have a significant impact on rape rates and crime rate against women.

Practical Self-Defense Skills for Women

The National Organization for Women (NOW) reports that women between the ages of 16 and 24 are at the greatest risk of violence, and suffer from the highest rates of rape and physical abuse. The U.S. Department of Justice estimates that as many as one in five women will experience rape, sexual assault, or attempted rape during their college years, and as many as two in four women will suffer from some form of physical abuse during their college years. For this reason it has become essential for young women to prepare themselves to handle physical encounters. This article offers an outline for a set of essential self-defense skills all women should possess for handling one of the most common forms of physical violence women face.

State Residence Restrictions and Forcible Rape Rates

This study examines whether the presence of state residence restrictions resulted in changes in statewide rates of forcible rape. It builds on the limited geographic coverage of prior studies by including state-level Uniform Crime Report (UCR) data across 19 years for 49 states and the District of Columbia. It uses a quasi-experimental research method based on a longitudinal fixed-effects panel model design, which can help control for relatively static differences between states. Results indicate that when a state residence restriction was present, regardless of how it was measured, rates of UCR forcible rape were higher in the state than when the policy was not present. This suggests that residence restrictions, at least at the state level, are not useful as an overall crime prevention measure, but may be useful for increasing detection or reporting levels of such crimes. However, results also suggest that the size of the increase varied by whether the policy only applied to offenders with child victims or also included those with adult victims. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

Enforcing Gender: The Constitution of Sex and Gender in Prison Regimes

This article examines how gender identities are constituted through contemporary practices of imprisonment in the United States and in England and Wales, with particular attention to transgender prisoners. I draw on recent queer theory, transgender studies, and Michel Foucault’s work, including what he refers to in the 1977–78 Collège de France lectures as “a triangle: sovereignty, discipline, and governmental management.” All three of these techniques of power operate within prisons, from the use of violent sovereign power in physical and sexual assaults to the gendered disciplinary norms involved in rules about prisoners’ clothing and appearance. The management of populations through biopower occurs throughout these prison systems, including in the categorization of prisoners by sex or gender, in their placement in a men’s or women’s facility, and in government statistics about prison populations. I present a brief comparison of gender recognition policies in the United Kingdom and the United States and then analyze the role of the English and American prison systems in constructing sex and gender identities. Gendered power dynamics are particularly evident in the policies and practices toward transgender prisoners in the United States, who are often placed in inappropriate facilities, face high rates of violence and rape, and are erased from official reports and statistics. Just as Foucault used his analysis of the prison to show how disciplinary power operates in broader society, I conclude that contemporary prisons constitute and reinforce binary sex identities, normative gender identities, and violent forms of masculinity.

Rape and Gender Conflict in a Patriarchal State

The handling of rape by the criminal justice system may be intimately intertwined with the gender inequality found in patriarchal communities. The present study examined the empirical relationship between female sociopolitical power and the rape rates and rape case clearance rates of 105 counties in an agrarian state with a reputation for patriarchal culture. The results suggested that, after controlling for contextual variables, counties with higher levels of female sociopolitical power also experienced higher rates of rape, and lower proportions of rape cases cleared by an arrest. The findings suggested that women in patriarchal communities experience a backlash effect as they achieve progress toward gender equality.

A time-series analysis of the effectiveness of sex offender notification laws in the USA

Archival crime data of forcible rapes for all 50 states of the United States dating from 1960 to 2008 were analyzed using an interrupted time-series design. For each state, rates of forcible rape prior to the passage of sex offender legislation were compared to rates of forcible rape after the passage of sex offender registration and notification laws. The results were mixed, with 17 states demonstrating a significant drop in rates of forcible rape following implementation of sex offender notification laws, and 32 states demonstrating no discernable change. Potential explanations for the obtained results were explored including the effect of differences in notification practices, registration practices, and the availability of sex offender treatment. Implications for future research are discussed.

Classification of Chinese honeys according to their floral origin by near infrared spectroscopy

The feasibility of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and multivariate analysis as tools to classify Chinese honey samples according to their different floral origins was explored. Five kinds of honey, namely, acacia, linden, rape, vitex and jujube, were analysed using a NIR spectrophotometer with a fibre optic probe. Classification models based on the NIR spectra were developed using Mahalanobis-distance discriminant analysis (MD-DA) and a back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN). By the MD-DA model, total correct classification rates of 87.4% and 85.3% were observed for the calibration and validation samples, respectively, while the ANN model resulted in total correct classification rates of 90.9% and 89.3% for the calibration and validation sets, respectively. By ANN, the respective correct classification rates of linden, acacia, vitex, rape and jujube were 97.1%, 94.3%, 80.0%, 97.1%, and 85.7% in calibration, and 100%, 93.3%, 80.0%, 100%, and 73.3% in validation. The results indicated that NIR combined with a classification technique could be a suitable technology for the classification of Chinese honeys from different botanical origins.

Problems in Reporting Sexual Violence Prevalence

In their article, Peterman et al. use Demographic Health Survey (DHS) data to estimate rates of rape in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).1 Measuring and reporting on sexual violence (SV) in crisis-affected populations has well-known challenges,2–4 and survivors of SV are not limited to women of reproductive age.5,6 In March 2010, we assessed the prevalence of all forms of SV in a population-based cluster survey of adults in eastern DRC territories of South Kivu, North Kivu, and Ituri.5 Our data covered the 1994–2010 time period. Peterman et al. used data from the 2007 DHS, a population-based cluster sample of all DRC provinces, which contains a number of limitations in determining SV prevalence (e.g., a limited numbers of questions on SV and a lack of clear distinction between rape and other forms of SV). Although they exist for the purpose of SV research, standardized definitions, measurement modalities, and ethical standards are not always used, thus making comparisons difficult.7,8 This photograph by Steffi Graham dates from 1999 during the height of what was then called the “garden preservation crisis,” when New York City policy favored auctioning off community gardens and in some rare cases, converting them to the jurisdiction of the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation or selling them to The Trust for Public Land and the New York Restoration Project. Printed with permission. Peterman et al. provide important insight into higher rates of rape in the conflict-affected eastern provinces among women aged 15 to 49 years in 2006 to 2007. Our study—limited to the Kivus and Ituri—also found significant rates of SV among women and men of all ages (not included in the 2007 DHS study). To calculate a comparison, we had to assume an equal yearly rate of SV among women (> 18 years) and men while using standard definitions and including all forms of SV. Over the last 16 years in the Kivus and Ituri, 38 per 1000 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 25.63, 50.89) women (> 18 years) experienced SV and 13 per 1000 (95% CI = 9.28, 17.47) men experienced SV. However, the prevalence of SV varies by year and province. (These data were derived from a secondary analysis not yet published.) Despite recent attempts at surveying men, the DHS needs to be revised to reflect current evidence-based work that documents SV and includes women older than 49 years as well as men of any age. Everyone, whether male or female, is at risk for SV and should have equal access to documentation of ills. Whatever the prevalence, SV is a horrific public health and human rights problem. Survivors deserve responses informed by sound data and analyses such as those included in Peterman et al. and our study. It is unfortunate that policy and programmatic responses to SV are often based on sensational, misinformed, and irresponsible advocacy and media reporting. Researchers, advocates, and the media should work together to ensure sound research findings are reported responsibly and contribute to evidence-based responses.

Assessing the Crime Impact of Sexually Violent Predator Laws

This paper examines the effect of sexually violent predator laws on rates of forcible rape and proxies for molestation. We find little evidence that these programs have detectable effects on outcomes.

Sex Offender Registries: Fear without Function?

AbstractI use three separate data sets and designs to determine whether sex offender registries are effective. First, I use state-level panel data to determine whether sex offender registries and public access to them decrease the rate of rape and other sexual abuse. Second, I use a data set that contains information on the subsequent arrests of sex offenders released from prison in 1994 in 15 states to determine whether registries reduce the recidivism rate of offenders required to register compared with the recidivism of those who are not. Finally, I combine data on locations of crimes in Washington, D.C., with data on locations of registered sex offenders to determine whether knowing the locations of sex offenders in a region helps predict the locations of sexual abuse. The results from all three data sets do not support the hypothesis that sex offender registries are effective tools for increasing public safety.