Rape Drug Research Articles

Wearable Electronic Finger for Date Rape Drugs Screening: From "Do-It-Yourself" Fabrication to Self-Testing.

In-house digital fabrication of low-cost sensors that can on-site and rapidly detect adulteration of alcoholic beverages with sedation drugs (known as date rape drugs, (DRDs)) and analgesics is of great importance for everyday consumers and supervisory authorities. DRDs and analgesics are administrated in spirits for "drug-facilitated sexual assault" crimes and for the reduction of the following day hangover caused by low-quality spirits, respectively. This work describes, a novel "do-it-yourself" wearable 3D printed electrochemical finger (e-finger), which enables direct, rapid, and multianalyte self-testing of the main DRDs (flunitrazepam, scopolamine, ketamine) and paracetamol via direct immersing into a spirit shot. The oxygen interference on flunitrazepam detection was alleviated by dissolving an effervescent tablet of vitamin C in the spirit shot, as ascorbic acid serves as a scavenger for dissolved oxygen. The e-finger can be printed in-house at any size by anyone with access to a low-cost domestic 3D printer using a simple, fast, and low-cost printing procedure. The e-finger is addressed by a smartphone-based miniature potentiostat and allows on-the-spot self-checking of the quality and safety of alcoholic spirits, via a single calibration-free voltammetric measurement, readily performed even by untrained end users. The e-finger is a new powerful screening tool in the hands of supervisory authorities to conduct on-site forensic investigations. More importantly, it paves the way toward in-house e-production of "ready-to-use" reliable self-testing devices.

Optimized and Validated DBS/MAE/LC–MS Method for Rapid Determination of Date-Rape Drugs and Cocaine in Human Blood Samples—A New Tool in Forensic Analysis

The aim of this work was to develop a new method for the determination of selected substances from the date-rape drugs group: ketamine, benzodiazepines and cocaine. The method is based on the dried blood spot method which seems to be a suitable tool in the analysis of tested substances. The extraction process based on microwave-assisted extraction was optimized to enable optimal conditions for the isolation of a wide range of analytes from blood samples collected on DBS cards. The extraction with ethyl acetate with a buffer of pH = 9 carried out at a temperature of 50 °C for 15 min ensured high extraction efficiency of the tested analytes. The optimized method was validated. Limits of detection (LOD = 4.38–21.1 ng/mL) and quantification (LOQ = 14.6–70.4 ng/mL), inter- and intra-day precision (CV = 1.37–13.4% and 3.39–14.8%, respectively), recovery (RE = 93.0–112.4%) and matrix effect (ME = 98.4–101.6%) were determined. The validation results indicate the possibility of using the proposed method in the analysis of real blood samples collected from victims of sexual assault.

Drug facilitated sexual assault and their analysis

Assault and sexual molestation against women are among the fastest multiplying offenses in today’s world. Drug facilitated sexual assault is a form of sexual harassment, that primarily focuses on molestation initiated by the usage of some drugs. When an individual is under the ascendancy of alcohol or any other supplementary substances such as drugs, their ability to think logically and rationally is harmed which is exploited by the offender to execute the crime. Any medications or class of drugs that can be exploited to aid in the execution of sexual harassment are cited as club drugs. These drugs have gained tremendous popularity among abusers because these drugs not only physically impair or blunt the victim but also retard the mental capability of the victim when condemned to such a situation as a repercussion the victim cannot remember anything. These drugs can be mixed in the food and drinks of the victim as they don’t have any smell, taste, or colour and hence act as a convincing tool for the criminals. This paper covers the introduction to Club drugs, different types of date rape drugs, and their prevention.

Colorimetric paper sensor for visual detection of date-rape drug γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB)

Drug-facilitated crimes using date-rape drugs are on the rise. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), a notorious date-rape drug, is colorless, odorless, and tasteless, and therefore difficult to detect in beverages. The ingestion of GHB can severely incapacitate individuals by inducing dizziness, drowsiness, and unconsciousness, making them vulnerable to crimes. To prevent drug-facilitated crimes, a GHB detection kit is developed in which PCDA-gabazine and PCDA, which strongly interact with GHB, are used as sensing materials, while PEO and PVDF are used as matrix materials that enable rapid GHB detection in a short time by increasing the penetration rate of the liquid samples. Detection kits are fabricated by electrospinning a solution containing the sensing materials and matrix materials mixed in an optimal ratio. The color of the kit distinctly changes from blue to red when a drink spiked with GHB is dropped on it (limit of detection: about 0.0096 wt%). The fabricated GHB detection kit is easy to carry and provides a visually distinguishable detection result without requiring any complicated procedure, equipment, or trained personnel. Importantly, the kit can detect GHB in colored and alcoholic beverages. Furthermore, a mobile application is developed that can aid GHB detection using the kit in diverse environments.

All solid-state miniaturized potentiometric sensors for flunitrazepam determination in beverages.

Flunitrazepam is one of the frequently used hypnotic drugs to incapacitate victims for sexual assault. Appropriate diagnostic tools should be available to victims regarding the growing concern about "date-rape drugs" and their adverse impact on society. Miniaturized screen-printed potentiometric sensors offer crucial point-of-care devices that alleviate this serious problem. In this study, all solid-state screen-printed potentiometric flunitrazepam sensors have been designed. The paper device was printed with silver and carbon ink. Formation of an aqueous layer in the interface between carbon-conducting material and ion-sensing membrane nevertheless poses low reproducibility in the solid-contact electrodes. Accordingly, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDT) nano-dispersion was applied as a conducting hydrophobic polymer on the electrode surface to curb water accumulation. Conditioning of ion-sensing membrane in the vicinity of reference membrane has been considered carefully using special protocol. Electrochemical characteristics of the proposed PEDT-based sensor were calculated and compared favorably to PEDT-free one. The miniaturized device was successfully used for the determination of flunitrazepam in carbonated soft drinks, energy drink, and malt beverage. Statistical comparison between the proposed sensor and official method revealed no significant difference. Nevertheless, the proposed sensor provides simple and user-friendly diagnostic tool with less equipment for on-site determinationof flunitrazepam.

The Interest of a Systematic Toxicological Analysis Combined with Forensic Advice to Improve the Judicial Investigation and Final Judgment in Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault Cases.

The conviction rate in drug facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) cases is known to be very low. In addition, the potential impact of toxicological results on the case is often not well understood by the judicial authorities. The aims of this study were (1) to obtain more knowledge concerning the prevalence of incapacitating substances in DFSA cases, (2) to create a more efficient DFSA analysis strategy taking background information into account, and (3) to evaluate the potential impact of systematic toxicological analysis (STA) on the final judicial outcome. This small-scale epidemiological study (n = 79) demonstrates that ‘commonly-used’ illicit drugs, psychoactive medicines and ethanol are more prevalent in DFSA cases in contrast to the highly mediatized date rape drugs. Additionally, via case examples, the interest of performing STA—to prove incapacitation of the victim—in judicial procedures with mutual-consent discussions has been demonstrated as it led to increased convictions. However, more attention has to be paid to ensure a short sampling delay and to get more accurate information from the medical treatment of the alleged victim. This will improve the interpretation of the toxicological analysis and thus its applicability in a DFSA case. The future is multi-disciplinary and will certainly lead to an efficient and more cost-effective DFSA approach in which STA can impact the final judgment.

Sandpaper-based electrochemical devices assembled on a reusable 3D-printed holder to detect date rape drug in beverages

This study describes the development of a new electrochemical paper-based analytical device (ePAD) on alumina sandpaper substrate through a pencil-drawing process for square wave voltammetry measurements of midazolam maleate used as a “date rape drug” in beverages. The proposed ePAD was assembled on a reusable 3D printed holder to delimit its geometric area and ensure better robustness. The ePAD was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The direct drawing of ePADs on sandpaper platforms through a graphite pencil has offered suitable repeatability (RSD = 1.0%) and reproducibility (RSD = 4.0%) using [Fe(CN)6]4– as redox probe. The proposed ePAD provided linear behaviour in the midazolam maleate concentration range between 2.5 and 150 mg L−1 and a limit of detection of 2.0 mg L−1. The feasibility of the ePAD for forensic application was successfully demonstrated through the detection of midazolam in different beverages (water, beer, liquor, and vodka). The intended application revealed low interference of other compounds present in beverages. Based on the achieved results, the proposed ePAD has offered great accuracy with no statistical difference at 95% confidence level from the data recorded by high performance liquid chromatography. The operational simplicity and the robustness ensured by the assembling on a reusable 3D printed holder make the ePAD drawn on sandpaper platform a powerful and promising analytical tool for the analysis of “date rape drugs” opening new possibilities for on-site forensic investigations.

Azo dye-based optical probe for the detection toward mimic molecule of date rape drug

The azo dye-based visual responsive optical probe 5-(diheptylamino)-2-((3,5-dinitrothiophen-2-yl)diazenyl)phenol (DP), for the purpose of detection toward the mimic molecule of date rape drug was designed, synthesized and characterized. The recognizing abilities toward the mimic molecule (sodium butyrate) of date rape drug (gamma-hydroxybutyric acid) were examined in water. The prepared molecule was visually, analytically, and theoretically confirmed with the sensing ability of the probe. Developing an easy-to-use sensor kit will work spontaneously with a detectable colorimetric response in daylight. Obtained color change from light turquoise color to bluish-purple toward sodium butyrate containing alcoholic beverages was successfully recognized and confirmed. Even though the color change from light turquoise to bluish-purple obtained, which is not easily recognized clearly with the eye under normal light, UV–Visible spectra indicate the changes, thus the probe can be utilized productively to protect the victim from sexual assault.

Z-drugs for drug facilitated sexual assaults

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a type of sexual savagery against an individual debilitated by a psychealtering substance, such as alcohol or “date rape drugs”. It is estimated that 75% of all acquaintance rapes involve alcohol or drugs. When used with alcohol, drugs can result in a loss of consciousness and a loss of the ability to consent to sexual intercourse. Most DFSA victims are women, and the culprits are men, although men can also be victims. The psychoactive substance most commonly relatedto DFSA is alcohol. However, recreational drug use levels are rising, and drug markets expand, providing faster and cheaper ways to incapacitate a victim. Using drugs for non-consensual sexual activity has led to the introduction of terms such as “date rape drugs” and “drink spiking.”

γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid: Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Toxicology.

Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a short-chain fatty acid present endogenously in the brain and used therapeutically for the treatment of narcolepsy, as sodium oxybate, and for alcohol abuse/withdrawal. GHB is better known however as a drug of abuse and is commonly referred to as the "date-rape drug"; current use in popular culture includes recreational "chemsex," due to its properties of euphoria, loss of inhibition, amnesia, and drowsiness. Due to the steep concentration-effect curve for GHB, overdoses occur commonly and symptoms include sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and death. GHB binds to both GHB and GABAB receptors in the brain, with pharmacological/toxicological effects mainly due to GABAB agonist effects. The pharmacokinetics of GHB are complex and include nonlinear absorption, metabolism, tissue uptake, and renal elimination processes. GHB is a substrate for monocarboxylate transporters, including both sodium-dependent transporters (SMCT1, 2; SLC5A8; SLC5A12) and proton-dependent transporters (MCT1-4; SLC16A1, 7, 8, and 3), which represent significant determinants of absorption, renal reabsorption, and brain and tissue uptake. This review will provide current information of the pharmacology, therapeutic effects, and pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of GHB, as well as therapeutic strategies for the treatment of overdoses. Graphical abstract.

Use of Ketamine as a Date Drug: a Systematic Scoping Review

Background and Objectives: The interdependence of ketamine and rape represent an emerging issue for both the developed and the developing countries. Ketamine is rarely used in human surgery nowadays, but there is a range of traits concerning the aforementioned drug making it the most appropriate one for committing a sexual assault. Methods: An advanced search in Medline, CINAHL, PsychINFO, Scopus and Cohrane Library and ScienceDirect was conducted. Identified articles were published between 2005 and 2020. Results: Eight empirical studies were included that comprised the number of victims who had consumed unwillingly ketamine leading to rape. Conclusion: Ketamine as a rape drug is an emerging issue, the extent of which we do not yet acknowledge. Community based informative programs for the public should be implemented, concerning the hazards following the consumption of ketamine.

An E-Ornament for Women to Escape the Effects of Date Rape Drugs

India is a developing country which had shown several successful faces in various fields. Though there is a good rate of social, economic and political development in our country on one hand, the amount of violence, crimes and illegal activities are increasing on the other hand. With regard to this, a survey of National Crime Records Bureau had stated that the fourth most common crime in our country is Sexual Assault. To ensnare the victims of sexual assault, women trafficking, robbery and other crimes related to women, criminals most probably uses date rape drugs. In this paper, we had put forth an idea of developing an Electronic Band which would be help for automatic indication and earlier rescue of the victim. This E-ORNAMENT is fitted with system interfaced with sensors which keeps an eye on the body conditions of women wearing the band. When there is a sudden change in usual pulse rate, body temperature and activity state of the victim, an automatic message of changes noticed in the body conditions along with the location of the victim is generated from the e-band and sent to her family or friends such that they can ensure with the victim about her safety (or) In case of no response received from her, they can rescue the victim as soon as possible. We hereby use tools such as Microcontroller, Pulse Rate Monitoring Sensor, Temperature Sensor and Panic safety button.

THE EFFECTS OF PRISON REFORMS ON REFORMATION OF INMATES IN NYANDARUA COUNTY,KENYA

This paper uses data collected for an MA Thesis on effects of prison reforms on reformation of inmates in Nyandarua County prisons, Kenya. This study has been necessitated by the need to make the penal system fair and effective. As has been revealed by this study, despite undertaking prison reforms, the attempt to improve the harsh prison conditions has created other problems that negate the reformation and rehabilitation of offenders.
 The study sought to investigate the effects of prison reforms on reformation of inmates in prisons with a focus on examining the existing prison reforms that have been undertaken in prisons since 2001, the effects of prison reforms on the reformation of prisoners, how Prison reforms have negated the reformation of prisoners, and mechanisms that were in place in prisons to control the negative effects of prison reforms.
 Major research findings obtained revealed that, though reforms have been implemented, a good portion of the reforms remained un-implemented. This may be explained by the fact that the prison authorities themselves did not put in place deliberate measures to rehabilitate inmates. Besides, there were gaps in the marketability of the skills that the prisoners acquired while in prison.
 The study noted the upsurge of prison crimes such as substances and drug abuse, rape and sodomy, and prisoner violence/assaults against other prisoners. The study recommends promotion of prison staff because they are the first line of defense in terms of government reformation efforts. Their stronger good will counts in any prisons reformation agenda.
 The study recommends constant review of prison education and training programmes to conform them to current job market skills for smooth re-integration of prisoners back into the society.

JUULing Epidemic Among Youth: A Guide to Devices, Terminology, and Interventions.

JUULing Epidemic Among Youth: A Guide to Devices, Terminology, and Interventions.

Application of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and GC–MS/MS for the determination of GHB in beverages and hair

Recently, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) was determined in “Kawa Trendy Drink” which was labeled as a functional beverage containing gamma-aminobutyric acid and quickly became popular in various club in China. GHB has a strong sedative effect and is often used as a date rape drug and euphoriant in drug-facilitated sexual assaults. However, it is believed that same beverages themselves contain natural GHB. Whether GHB contained in seized beverages was added or exists in themselves resulted in complicated interpretation of the nature of cases. The detection window of GHB in blood (5 h) and urine (<12 h) was narrow, make documentation of GHB exposure difficult, while hair can extend the detection time of GHB from several hours to several days/months. Thus, a sensitive detection method based on dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) and GC–MS/MS for GHB in beverages and hair had been established. Under the optimum extraction conditions, acceptable linear relationship was achieved in the range of 1.5–500 ng/mL with the correlation coefficient (r) of 0.9986 for spiked water samples and in the range of 0.03–10 ng/mg with the correlation coefficient (r) of 0.9979 for spiked melanin samples. The LOD (S/N = 3) was estimated to be 0.5 ng/mL and 0.01 ng/mg, respectively. A recovery of 70.6–88.5% were obtained for spiked samples. The mean relative error (MRE) was within ±6.5% and the relative standard error (RSD) was less than 4.9%. The combination of DLLME with GC–MS/MS offers an alternative analytical approach for the sensitive detection of GHB in real beverages sold in Chinese markets and in hair of Chinese population for forensic purposes. The proposed methods had the advantages of shorter extraction time and were suitable for simultaneous pretreatment of samples in batches. To our knowledge, this is the first report to present GHB in beverages and human hair using DLLME.

Evidence of Natural GHB Presence in Energy Drinks: Caution in Data Interpretation in Suspected DFSA Cases.

Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), usually reported as rape drug in drug-facilitated sexual assaults (DFSA), is an endogenous substance in human body and is also found in many beverages. This may lead to data misinterpretation in forensic cases. Herein, we aimed to collect evidence about natural GHB presence in 13 energy drinks (ED). After a liquid-liquid extraction with acidic ethyl acetate, samples were derivatized with BSTFA 1% TMCS. Analyses were carried out by a GC-MS system in SIM mode (GHB, 233, 234, 143 and 147 m/z; GHB-d6, 239, 240, 120 and 206m/z). GHB was present in all the samples at very low concentrations ranging from 98 to 197ng/mL. Thus, GHB presence in ED is not exclusively related to exogenous addition. Since the GHB levels are far lower than the minimum active dose (i.e., 0.5g), it is not expected to induce any effect.

A novel trimodal system on a paper-based microfluidic device for on-site detection of the date rape drug “ketamine”

Paper-based microfluidic device was designed with wax-printing to combine potentiometric, fluorimetric and colorimetric detection zones. This newly developed trimodal paper chip has been used for on-site determination of ketamine hydrochloride (KET) as a date rape drug in beverages. The device employed polyaniline nano-dispersion as conducting polymer in ion sensing paper electrodes designed to fit USB plug connector. Carbon dots-gold nanoparticles and cobalt thiocyanate were used in fluorescence and color detection zones, respectively. Cellular phone’s camera facilitated the on-site fluorimetric and color detection. The implemented trimodal detection system exhibited specificity for KET detection in the presence of several other beverage interferences i.e., biogenic amines. This innovative sensor brings together analytical figures of merit for effective KET detection in single aliquot of spiked beverages. The proposed paper-based chip also fulfils WHO criteria for point-of-care devices posing the proposed trimodal paper device as an active part for rapid, on-site drug diagnostics and to be applied further for other similar drugs.

Drug-facilitated sexual assaults (DFSA): a serious underestimated issue.

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a nonconsensual sexual act in which the victim is incapacitated or unconscious due to the effects of alcohol, a drug and/or other intoxicating substances. Dozens of drugs (including ethanol) can potentially be used to commit sexual assaults, but γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and flunitrazepam are the most common "date rape drugs". Multidisciplinary databases were browsed using the following search terms: "drug-facilitated sexual assault", "chemical submission", "date rape", "rape drugs", and "drink-spiking". Moreover, a search for reports was conducted on Institutional websites to identify documentation published by international agencies or institutions. Articles and reports were independently evaluated by each author. There are no accurate estimates of the number of DFSA occurring each year, although assaults are increasingly reported. Many DFSA, however, are still not reported. Victims are reluctant to report incidents because of embarrassment, guilt or perceived responsibility, or because they do not clearly remember the assault. Moreover, most of the drugs typically used in sexual assaults are rapidly metabolized, making them undetectable in routine drug screenings. Most of the substances involved in DFSA, with the exception of alcohol, are under international control and scheduled under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. However, several psychotropic substances and antihistamines used in sexual assaults are still not under international control, allowing for trafficking, often via the Internet and courier. The absence of international control makes it difficult to obtain accurate data on the nature and the extent of the problem.

A Carbon-Dot Sensing Probe for Screening of Date Rape Drugs: Nitro-containing Benzodiazepines

Simple, low-cost, rapid, selective, and sensitive sensing kits are required for screening of illicit date rape drugs such as nimetazepam, flunitrazepam, clonazepam, and nitrazepam in beverages. Because of low solubility of these analytes in aqueous solution, hydrophobic carbon dots (hC-dots) are needed. In this study, hC-dots are prepared from D-phenylalanine through a hydrothermal route, which have been used for screening of the analytes. To minimize matrix interference in various beverages, including beer, red wine, whisky, and orange juice, liquid-liquid extraction of the analytes using toluene for 5 min is required before quantitation based on analyte induced fluorescence quenching of the hC-dots at 430 nm when excited at 365 nm. This assay allows the quantitation of nimetazepam down to 7.24 μM, which is lower than that found in the beverages associated with drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA). The assay is selective toward nitro-substituted benzodiazepines over popular abused drugs, including 4-chloroethcathinone, cocaine, heroin, 4-hydroxybutyric acid, ketamine, and methamphetamine. Since only hC-dots (dispersed in 0.5 mL toluene), a handheld UV light (365 nm), and a camera (or smartphone) are required, this simple, low-cost, rapid, and selective sensing system is ideal for beverage analyses at DFSA crime scenes.

Investigation of midazolam electro-oxidation on boron doped diamond electrode by voltammetric techniques and density functional theory calculations: Application in beverage samples

Midazolam (MID) is a sedative drug which can be added in beverage samples as drug-facilitated-sexual assault (date rape drug). This type of drug has short half-life in biological fluids (not detectable) which often prevents the correlation between drug abuse and crime. In this work, we described a simple and low-cost method for fast screening and selective determination of MID in beverage samples (vodka, whiskey and red wine). For the first time, the electrochemical oxidation of MID was used for this purpose. The oxidation mechanism was studied using electrochemical techniques (cyclic and square-wave voltammetry) and computational simulations (density functional theory calculations). Differential-pulse voltammetry, boron-doped diamond electrode (BDDE), and Britton-Robinson (BR) buffer (pH = 2) were selected as electrochemical analysis technique, working electrode and supporting electrolyte, respectively. Different linear response ranges (4–25 μmol L−1 with r = 0.9972; 1–10 μmol L−1 with r = 0.9951; 1–15 μmol L−1 with r = 0.9982) and limits of detection (0.46, 0.43 and 0.33 μmol L−1) were obtained for the analysis of vodka, whisky, and red wine solutions, respectively. The precision and accuracy were satisfactory considering the low relative standard deviation values (RSD < 6.3%, n = 15) and minimal sample matrix effects (recovery values between 87 and 103%).