Rank Inheritance Research Articles

Politicization of Ritual Matters: Debates on “Two Principal Wives” (Liangdi) in Early Medieval China

The tumultuous political environment of early medieval China gave rise to a social phenomenon known as liangdi 兩嫡, a situation in which a man kept two principal wives. This anomaly caused a great deal of confusion not only in terms of inheritance of title, rank, and property for the sons born of the two wives, but more importantly, in mourning observances by the sons for their mothers. To provide guidance for those involved in such situations, many discussions and debates around liangdi cases took place, both publicly among officials in courts and privately between colleagues and friends. This article, through analyzing four recorded discussions and debates on liangdi cases from the Jin dynasty (265–420), examines how a private issue of having two wives, resulting from the geopolitical conditions of civil war and segregation following the disintegration of the Han empire, became a public matter that had a profound ritual and political significance. At the heart of the politicization of ritual matters was the question of the political legitimacy of a newly unified empire.

A Systematic Review on Leadership Styles in Small and Medium Enterprises

Earlier notions of leadership opined that leadership can be found in one's genes that determine how an individual behaves and reacts to his/her surrounding (Bass, 1985). That is, a leader can still be detected in a group of people although nobody may be appointed to lead at the outset. In the past, an individual became a leader through inheritance of a rank or the throne in a country or in an institution. However, the temperament or characteristic of an individual determine whether one can lead or not. A leader acts as a conflict contributor, a resolver or peacemaker, and a punisher (King et al., 2009). Besides being dominant over the rest of the group members, a leader needs to influence the followers too with his/her leadership style. The leadership style of a leader depends on the attitude of him/her to influencing followers in the organisation. The modern era indicates that an uncertainty or complex situations are not uncommon. In a context of a small and medium enterprises (SMEs), turbulences arising in an enterprise require an effective leader to sustain a strong sense of opportunity for all followers. Such participation allows followers to share opinions, make better decisions and control the resources. In fact, followers and the leader cannot be separated. Likewise, leadership runs in tandem with development. Development occurs as leadership pushes it (Banyai, 2009). Hence, without proper leadership to lead the followers, it would be rather difficult to reach the mutual goals of the enterprise (Poskas & Messer, 2015). Also, a good leadership through guidance and effective communication enables followers to improve themselves. Hence, to conduct a relevant systematic review, the current paper is guided by the following main research question: how are leadership styles practiced among leaders in the context of small and medium enterprises? The focus of this paper is on the leaders of small and medium enterprises where followers are working together towards achieving the mutual goals of the enterprise. Keywords: leader; leadership style; PRISMA; small and medium enterprises; systematic literature review

Bonds of bros and brothers: Kinship and social bonding in postdispersal male macaques.

Group-living animals often maintain a few very close affiliative relationships-social bonds-that can buffer them against many of the inevitable costs of gregariousness. Kinship plays a central role in the development of such social bonds. The bulk of research on kin biases in sociality has focused on philopatric females, who typically live in deeply kin-structured systems, with matrilineal dominance rank inheritance and life-long familiarity between kin. Closely related males, in contrast, are usually not close in rank or familiar, which offers the opportunity to test the importance of kinship per se in the formation of social bonds. So far, however, kin biases in male social bonding have only been tested in philopatric males, where familiarity remains a confounding factor. Here, we studied bonds between male Assamese macaques, a species in which males disperse from their natal groups and in which male bonds are known to affect fitness. Combining extensive behavioural data on 43 adult males over a 10-year period with DNA microsatellite relatedness analyses, we find that postdispersal males form stronger relationships with the few close kin available in the group than with the average nonkin. However, males form the majority of their bonds with nonkin and may choose nonkin over available close kin to bond with. Our results show that kinship facilitates bond formation, but is not a prerequisite for it, which suggests that strong bonds are not restricted to kin in male mammals and that animals cooperate for both direct and indirect fitness benefits.

Juvenile rank acquisition is associated with fitness independent of adult rank.

Social rank is a significant determinant of fitness in a variety of species. The importance of social rank suggests that the process by which juveniles come to establish their position in the social hierarchy is a critical component of development. Here, we use the highly predictable process of rank acquisition in spotted hyenas to study the consequences of variation in rank acquisition in early life. In spotted hyenas, rank is 'inherited' through a learning process called 'maternal rank inheritance.' This pattern is very consistent: approximately 80% of juveniles acquire the exact rank expected under the rules of maternal rank inheritance. The predictable nature of rank acquisition in these societies allows the process of rank acquisition to be studied independently from the ultimate rank that each juvenile attains. In this study, we use Elo-deviance scores, a novel application of the Elo-rating method, to calculate each juvenile's deviation from the expected pattern of maternal rank inheritance during development. Despite variability in rank acquisition among juveniles, most of these juveniles come to attain the exact rank expected of them according to the rules of maternal rank inheritance. Nevertheless, we find that transient variation in rank acquisition in early life is associated with long-term fitness consequences for these individuals: juveniles 'underperforming' their expected ranks show reduced survival and lower lifetime reproductive success than better-performing peers, and this relationship is independent of both maternal rank and rank achieved in adulthood. We also find that multiple sources of early life adversity have cumulative, but not compounding, effects on fitness. Future work is needed to determine if variation in rank acquisition directly affects fitness, or if some other variable, such as maternal investment or juvenile condition, causes variation in both of these outcomes.

Agonism and dominance in female blue monkeys.

Agonistic behavior features prominently in hypotheses that explain how social variation relates to ecological factors and phylogenetic constraints. Dominance systems vary along axes of despotism, tolerance, and nepotism, and comparative studies examine cross-species patterns in these classifications. To contribute to such studies, we present a comprehensive picture of agonistic behavior and dominance relationships in wild female blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis), an arboreal guenon, with data from 9 groups spanning 18 years. We assessed where blue monkeys fall along despotic, tolerant, and nepotistic spectra, how their dominance system compares to other primates, primarily cercopithecines, and whether their agonistic behavior matches socioecological model predictions. Blue monkeys showed low rates of mainly low-intensity agonism and little counter-aggression. Rates increased with rank and group size. Dominance asymmetry varied at different organizational levels, being more pronounced at the level of interactions than dyad or group. Hierarchies were quite stable, had moderate-to-high linearity and directional consistency and moderate steepness. There was clear maternal rank inheritance, but inconsistent adherence to Kawamura's rules. There was little between-group variation, although hierarchy metrics showed considerable variation across group-years. Overall, blue monkeys have moderately despotic, moderately tolerant, and nepotistic dominance hierarchies. They resemble other cercopithecines in having significantly linear and steep hierarchies with a generally stable, matriline-based structure, suggesting a phylogenetic basis to this aspect of their social system. Blue monkeys most closely match Sterck et al.'s [1997] Resident-Nepotistic-Tolerant dominance category, although they do not fully conform to predictions of any one socioecological model. Our results suggest that socioecological models might better predict variation within than across clades, thereby incorporating both ecological variables and phylogenetic constraints. Our findings also highlight the need for clearer definitions of socioecologically relevant dominance categories, which would ideally derive from quantitative measures of dominance behavior. Intraspecific and methodological variation may, however, be a challenge.

Matrilineal rank inheritance varies with absolute rank in Japanese macaques

Matrilineal rank inheritance varies with absolute rank in Japanese macaques

El arte de acomodarse a dos mundos: la vida de don Pedro de Moctezuma Tlacahuepantli según los documentos del Archivo General de la Nación (México D. F.) y el Archivo General de Indias (Sevilla, España)

El presente artículo se centra en el análisis de la documentación de archivo sobre la vida de don Pedro de Moctezuma Tlacahuepantli, el hijo menor del huey tlahtoani mexica Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin y de la «princesa» de Tollan Xicocotitlan Miahuaxochtzin. En su biografía se enlazan varios aspectos del drama social que sufrió la nobleza indígena después de la llegada de Hernando Cortés, y al mismo tiempo se reflejan las estrategias principales de adaptación que los descendientes de los gobernantes prehispánicos del Altiplano tuvieron que aprender para acomodarse a las nuevas realidades. El artículo tiene como objetivos presentar una nueva versión de la biografía de don Pedro de Moctezuma, basándose en la síntesis de los documentos del Archivo General de la Nación y del Archivo General de Indias, y estudiar, a través de esas evidencias documentales, la relación entre las concepciones nahuas y castellanas sobre la herencia y la transmisión del rango social y los derechos a ciertas propiedades por lazos de sangre.

Dominance among female white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus): hierarchical linearity, nepotism, strength and stability

Research on Old World primates provided the foundation for understanding competitive strategies resulting from social and ecological pressures. The neotropical primate, Cebus capucinus shares many social patterns with Old World cercopithecines (e.g., female philopatry, male dispersal), which may contribute to similar expression of competitive strategies. To clarify the nature of dominance patterns among female white-faced capuchins we examined hierarchical linearity, rank acquisition, matrilineal rank inheritance, hierarchical strength and stability. We collected focal data on 22 adult females (2008) and long-term dominance data (1986–2008) on 33 adult females in Sector Santa Rosa, Costa Rica. Females displayed linear hierarchies based on the direction of dyadic submission. At sexual maturity females quickly acquired rank positions beneath their mother and older sisters. Hierarchies were considered strong based on high proportions of food-related agonism, short latency to detection of hierarchies (21 h/female) and low directional inconsistency scores (<5%). Hierarchies were considered stable based on lack of tied submissive interactions (indicative of uncontested rank positions), low rates of rank change (0.510 changes/year), and long-term stability in matrilineal rank order. These findings enhance our understanding of capuchin social systems and how the competitive strategies of white-faced capuchins compare to those of Old World primates.

Maternal effects on offspring social status in spotted hyenas

Social status is an important phenotypic trait that determines fitness-relevant parameters. In many mammalian societies, offspring acquire a social position at adulthood similar to that held by their mother (‘‘rank inheritance’’) and thus obtain fitness benefits associated with this status. Mothers may influence the rank of their offspring at adulthood in at least three distinct ways. Firstly, the direct genetic inheritance of maternal traits that influence resource holding potential might predispose offspring to obtain a rank similar to that held by their mother. Secondly, the prenatal maternal environment might influence offspring rank if fetal exposure to maternal androgens is related to maternal status and affects offspring competitiveness. Thirdly, maternal behavioral support, a component of the postnatal maternal environment, may help offspring dominate individuals subordinate to their mother, thereby assisting offspring to acquire a rank similar to that of their mother. Here, we simultaneously test predictions derived from these three potential maternal effects on offspring rank acquisition at adulthood, using cases of offspring adoption in the spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta. We demonstrate that the rank of adopted offspring at adulthood was similar to that of their surrogate mother and that the competitive ability of offspring at adulthood was best explained by postnatal maternal behavioral support. Key words: androgens, behavioral support, genetic effects, maternal effects, spotted hyena, ‘‘rank inheritance.’’ [Behav Ecol]

Matrilineal Cohesion and Social Networks in Macaca fuscata

In a provisioned troop of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in Arashiyama, Japan, greater adherence to Kawamura's rules of matrilineal rank inheritance and youngest ascendancy occurred among high-ranking females versus low-ranking females. Accordingly, high-ranking females formed more clustered hierarchies and low-ranking females had more dispersed hierarchies. A proximate explanation for this finding may be related to differences in how females maintain their social networks. To determine whether the clustering in the hierarchy was reflected in patterns of social cohesiveness, I compared network sizes of coalition and grooming partners for females in each third of the hierarchy. I calculated the proportion of available partners that were coalition and grooming partners within each category of relatedness (0.5 ≥ r ≤ 0.004 and r = 0). High-ranking females formed coalitions with a large proportion of their close relatives and a small proportion of their distant relatives; middle-ranking females supported an intermediate proportion of their close relatives and a small proportion of their distant relatives; and, low-ranking females formed coalitions with very few available close and distant relatives. High-ranking females groomed nearly all available close relatives and an intermediate proportion of distant relatives, whilst middle- and low-ranking females groomed a large proportion of available close relatives and a very small proportion of distant relatives. Thus, levels of clustering within the hierarchy appeared to reflect levels of social cohesion, in terms of grooming and coalition formation.

Matrilineal rank Inheritance varies with absolute rank in Japanese macaques.

In many cercopithecine primates, females form linear dominance hierarchies based on kinship. It is known that female rank follows the rules of matrilineal rank inheritance (MIR): (1) maternal rank inheritance, (2) maternal dominance, and (3) youngest ascendancy among sisters. Although, several determining such variation remain largely unknown. In this paper, I investigate the dominance relation-ships of 69 adult (>6 yr old) female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) in a free-ranging provisioned troop living in Shiga-Heights (Nagano Prefecture, Japan) and report new evidence of intra-group variation. Dominance relationships among high-ranking females followed MRI within kin units, those among low-ranking females did not. Maternal rank inheritance and youngest ascendancy operated between mother/daughter dyads and sister dyads of high-rank, but not in the dyads of low-rank. The dominance ranks of females from low-ranking kin units were dispersed and less predictable. These findings suggest that MRI varies with absolute dominance rank, and are discussed in relation to other asymmetries between high-and low-rank.

Development and social dominance among group-living primates.

Organisms are integrated systems whose physical and behavioral components codevelop and coevolve. Ontogenetic requirements in one domain are satisfied in part by prior or concurrent developments in another. This work explores how characteristic growth patterns in two primate groups interact with ecological, social, and other life-history constraints to promote the development of particular systems of agonistic relationship. First, the markedly size-dimorphic savanna baboons are contrasted with relatively nondimorphic macaques, where the pubertal growth capacity of males, relative to that of females, is comparatively modest. In baboons and other dimorphic Papionines, maturing males can be expected to invest more heavily in successful feeding competition, and known variation in the ontogeny of male-female dominance relations is well explained by this prediction. Data from five of the best-known species, for example, suggest that the female inclination to promote offspring dominaxice over male peers before puberty diminishes with increases in relative male size and growth potential at puberty. Potential mechanisms for the development of this pattern are discussed. Next, ontogenies are considered for ringtailed lemurs, a highly social, monomorphic prosimian primate in which seasonal scheduling of growth causes a large proportion of adult size to be achieved before weaning. In this species, daughters invariably develop strong alliances with their mothers, and pubertal females must overturn adults in dominance to remain in large natal groups. Despite life-history parallels between ringtails and the focal Papionines, the lemurs do not collaborate agonistically in ways that ensure matrilineal "inheritance" of dominance status, as seen in the monkeys. Body weight and individual fighting ability appear to determine dominance relations among infants, and asymmetries established before weaning typically remain stable until sexual maturation. Anatomical and behavioral data suggest that low visual acuity prevents ringtailed lemurs from developing a system of agonistic intervention that could stabilize adult dominance hierarchies and mediate rank inheritance. In any case, failure to promote the dominance of close kin is argued to have influenced life-history evolution in ringtailed lemurs extensively, including aspects of growth, reproductive biology, and social structure. These analyses identify foci for future research and illustrate the importance of bidirectional effects and feedback in the development and evolution of primate life histories and behavior. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Inheritance of rank requires inheritance of social environment

Inheritance of rank requires inheritance of social environment

Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals.

1: F.B.M. de Waal & A.H. Harcourt: Coalitions and alliances: a history of ethological research. 2: B. Chapais: Role of alliances in social inheritance of rank among female primates. 3: S.B. Datta: Effects of availability of allies on female dominance structure. 4: C.L. Ehardt & I.S. Bernstein: Conflict intervention behaviour by adult male macaques. 5: C.J. Zabel, S.E. Glickman, L.G. Frank, K.B. Woodmansee, & G. Keppel: Coalition formation in a colony of prepubertal spotted hyaenas. 6: C. Boehm: Segmentary `warfare' and the management of conflict: comparison of east African chimpanzees and patrilineal-patrilocal humans. 7: J.M. Rabbie: Effects of intragroup cooperation in intergroup competition on in-group cohesion and out-group hostility. 8: J.B. Silk: Patterns of intervention in agonistic contests among male bonnet macaques. 9: F.B.M. de Waal: Coalitions as part of reciprocal relations in the Arnhem chimpanzee colony. 10: K. Grammer: Intervention in conflicts among children. 11: R. Noe: Coalition formation among male baboons: shopping for profitable partners. 12: V.S.E. Falger: Cooperation in conflict: alliances in international politics. 13: J. van Hooff & C.P. van Schaik: Cooperation in competition: the ecology of primate bonds. 14: P.C. Lee & J.A. Johnson: Sex differences in alliances and in the acquisition and maintenance of dominance rank. 15: R.C. Connor, R.A. Smolker, & A.F. Richards: Dolphin alliances and coalitions. 16: A.H. Harcourt: Coalitions and alliances: are primates more complex than non-primates?. 17: R. Boyd: The evolution of reciprocity when conditions vary. 18: A.H. Harcourt & F.B.M. de Waal: Cooperation in conflict: from ants to anthropoids.

Feedback loop between kinship and dominance: the macaque model

There is growing evidence that macaque social systems represent sets of coadapted traits in which strength of hierarchies and degree of nepotism covary. A framework is developed to explain the link between dominance and kinship phenomena, assuming that power brought by alliances among non-kin is allometrically related to those involving relatives. This can account for the type of social relationships observed in "despotic" systems vs. "egalitarian" ones. When social bonds are mostly founded on kinship, lineages are closed and social power generated by coalitions among relatives may reach high levels; social power frequently outweighs the fighting abilities of single individuals, and asymmetry of dominance between group members may be marked. When lineages are more open, social bonds and alliances are less kin-biased, social relationships are more equal, and as the influence of coalitions is less important, the individual retains a certain degree of freedom in relation to the power of kin-networks. Acknowledging that the balance between individual and social power is not set at the same level across different species can explain a number of variations in rules of rank inheritance and relative dominance of males and females among macaques. The framework illustrates how epigenetic processes may shape complex features of primate social systems, and offers opportunities for testing.

Experimental matrilineal inheritance of rank in female Japanese macaques

In many species of cercopithecines a female inherits her mother's (or genealogical) rank. Matrilineal rank inheritance may be defined in general terms as the process whereby a female (termed ‘dependent’) acquires the rank of an ‘ally’ above another female (‘target’). An attempt was made to reproduce this process in time-lapse form in a group of 17 Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata, comprised of three families with similar age-sex compositions. Experimental female subgroups were formed such that in each of them a female (dependent) was given more alliance power than a dominant target. The results indicate that in each of the subgroups that was tested the dependent female inherited the rank of her ally (mother or older sister) above same-age or older targets. Four processes of rank inheritance were observed. The fact that females who were given more alliance power did not solicit their ally, or challenge the target females, before they were aided by their ally suggests that aggressive interventions are the primary mechanism of rank inheritance. The results also account for the reported rarity of aggressive interventions in natural groups and for the observation that orphans may nevertheless inherit the rank of their family. The role and dynamics of the recognition of alliances in the establishment of rank relationships are discussed.

Age, reproductive value, and dominance-related behaviour in vervet monkey females: cross-generational influences on social relationships and reproduction

Behavioural interactions among captive socially-living adult female vervet monkeys were analysed to determine whether (1) the motivation to maintain and increase, dominance rank declines with age as individual reproductive value declines, or (2) the cross-generational inheritance of dominance rank causes adult females to continue to involve themselves in dominance-related behaviours for the benefit of their daughters, even though their own reproductive value, is declining. The results indicate that adult females do not reduce their involvement in aggressive and dominance-related behaviours as they age. There was strong support for the hypothesis that older adult females maintain affiliative and supportive ties with their adult daughters, and that the daughters benefit from this relationship both in terms of social relationships and reproductive success. Young adult females without mothers were the recipients of more aggression, were less likely to be defeded when they were attacked and were less likely to challenge the rank of others compared to females with mothers living in the group. Young adult females with mothers produced significantly more surviving offspring and had a lower level of infant mortality than comparable adult females without mothers.

Agonistic aiding: Kinship, rank, age, and sex influences.

An analysis of 3,774 episodes of agonistic aiding collected during a two-year study of a rhesus monkey group (Macaca, mulatta) indicated the differential influence of kinship and rank relationships on the participation of different age-sex classes in both aid to victims and aid to aggressors. Most aiding favored victims rather than aggressors and was much more likely to occur when matrilineal kin were involved. Females were more likely to aid than were males, and the frequency of their participation increased with age. Females were much more influenced by kinship than were males and defended or aggressively supported kin against any third party regardless of dominance relationships. Adult males seldom aided against animals that were dominant to themselves; the rare exceptions occurred when adult males defended kin. Aiding was far more likely to occur if the victim was squealing, and noisy agonistic episodes often involved multiple aiders on both sides. Aiding patterns had some potential to insure dominance rank inheritance within families, in accordance with the Kawamura hypothesis. In aiding animals outside of their own matrilines, however, group members aided randomly with respect to this model. There was little evidence that aiding functioned to support individuals when they targeted animals to which they should be dominant as adults based on matrilineal dominance relationships. Most defensive aiding seemed to function primarily to defend victims (primarily kin) of aggression. Aggressive support of the attacker, on the other hand, seemed to function primarily to reinforce coalitions with the attacker. The identity of the victim was unimportant as long as it was neither kin to nor dominant to the aider. Aggressive support of attackers did not overturn existing dominance relationships.

The acquisition of rank and the development of reciprocal alliances among free-ranging immature baboons

1. In many Old World monkey species, reproductive benefits accrue to high-ranking males and females. During 15 months' observation of the agonistic interactions of free-ranging juvenile and subadult baboons, most individuals assumed ranks similar to those of their mothers during disputes with their peers. Maternal intervention in the disputes of their offspring appeared to be the primary factor affecting the inheritance of rank. Both the rate and the relative success of maternal aiding behavior were correlated with maternal rank, and therefore tended to perpetuate the existing rank heirarchy across generations. 2. Although the ranks of immature animals depended on the ability of family members to support them successfully when threatened, immature animals formed aggressive alliances primarily with the members of highranking matrilines. In contrast, adult females in the study troop formed alliances primarily with probably related individuals of adjacent rank. A model is presented that attempts to explain ontogenetic changes in alliance formation on the basis of the potential costs and benefits of entering into aggressive alliances with particular indivuduals.