Range Of Fire Research Articles

Fatalities from black powder percussion handguns

Three suicides and one homicide from black powder muzzle loading handguns are reported and the muzzle velocities of two weapons are recorded. The fatal head shots caused wide wound tracts traversing the brains and intracerebral haemorrhages remote from the tract were present in every case. The skulls showed considerable fractures which were pronounced in the cases of contact shots but were also present when the range of fire was 5 m. These extensive injuries from soft lead spheres with muzzle velocities of only ∼200 m/s are attributed to the expansion of the spheres. The regularly occurring deformation resulted in 13–16 mm calibre missiles in the cases of .44 spheres. The special features of black powder such as incomplete and slow combustion resulted in intense soot deposits in the vicinity of the entrance wound and in long ranges the gunshot residues travelled. In contact shots, large pocket-like underminings even in deeper tissue layers, abundant soot along the trajectory and skin burns were observed.

Experimental arrow wounds: ballistics and traumatology.

To provide information on the ballistics and the wounding potential of different arrows or bolts fired from different weapons and to investigate the suitability of simulant media for experimental arrow wounds. A longbow, a compound bow, and a crossbow were used to fire a variety of modern and ancient arrows. Fresh corpses of four adult pigs (47 shots) and blocks of gelatin and soap (48 shots) were used as target media, and the resulting wound tracts were examined. The range of fire was 8 m and the velocity was recorded at a distance of 3 m (and 16 m in additional shots) by light screen devices. The mean velocities recorded ranged from 45 m/s (longbow) to 67 m/s (compound bow). The excellent exterior ballistics of arrows results in only a small initial decrease in velocity of O.10 to 0.18 m x s(-1) x m(-1). The penetration depths were reproducible for the same arrowhead fired into the same simulant medium but differed considerably when compared with those in soft tissue. In nonbone tissue, the penetration depth was substantial (17-60 cm) and depended on velocity and especially on the type of arrowhead. All arrows penetrated deeply into the large body cavities and injured organs as long as no thick bone had to be perforated. Flat bones such as ribs were always perforated. Extraction of arrowheads from thick bone proved to be difficult in some cases. The wounding mechanism was a combination of incision and puncture, which facilitated deep penetration of tissue and produced clean-cut wounds. Gelatin and soap are not suitable for experimental arrow wounds. Every arrow wound carries a lethal potential. The severity of the wound depends primarily on the target area and the type of arrowhead. Extraction of arrowheads from thick bone has to be performed carefully.

Forest Response to Disturbance and Anthropogenic Stress

emperate forests of the northeastern United States are dynamic ecosystems that have been shaped through geological and historical time by climate change, natural disturbance, and human activity (Davis 1986, Peterken 1993, Whitney 1994). Particularly noticeable through a retrospective view is the remarkable resiliency of these forests to a wide range of physical disturbances, including windthrow, fire, and land clearance (Boose et al. 1993, Foster 1994, Motzkin et al. 1996, Raup 1964). Despite this resiliency, novel environmental stresses may surpass the ability of these forests to control important ecosystem processes (Likens et al. 1996). For instance, changes in the global earthatmosphere system resulting from industrial and human land-use ac-

Tree Spacing and Coexistence in Semiarid Savannas

1 In the debate on the stability of savanna vegetation, spatial processes are often neglected. A spatial simulation model based on a cellular automata approach was constructed to identify the factors and processes crucial to the coexistence of trees and grass, and their effects on the spatial arrangement of trees in arid and semiarid savannas. 2 The simulation shows that the traditional key determinants of savannas rain, fire and grazing generate and sustain a coexistence of trees and grasses only under specific conditions. 3 An increase in the rainfall (improved tree establishment) or in grazing (reduced competition from grass), led to an increase in the woody component in the model. Where this trend was reversed by occasional fires, the simulation indicated that trees would be patchily distributed in thickets that excluded fire. 4 For an intermediate range of fire, grazing and rainfall variables this strongly clumped distribution pattern of trees represented a stable tree-grass mixture for more than 20 000 simulated years. 5 The hypothesis is formulated that factors or processes other than competition for moisture, herbivory and fire are needed in addition to induce a long-term persistence of scattered trees. 6 By exploring the long-term and spatial consequences of altering the variables that were thought to be key determinants of savanna vegetation, this spatiotemporal model provides a novel insight into the understanding of savanna dynamics.

Unexpectedly Homicide

Determination of suicide as a manner of death can be a complex process. Whenever gunshot wounding is the cause of death, the anatomic clues useful for determining suicide versus homicide include wound location and range of fire. Contact intraoral gunshot wounds are much more frequently associated with suicide than with homicide. However, based on prosecuted cases, three of 66 consecutive cases of intraoral gunshot wounds were found to be homicides.

Replicating fifteenth- and sixteenth-century ordnance

One of the principal reasons for the success of European voyages of discovery in the late 15th and early 16th centuries was that each ship was a floating fortress, bristling with an array of devastating weaponry. Analyses of the extensive and varied ordnance and projectiles found on the Molasses Reef and Highborn Cay wrecks spurred experiments in the replication of a type of shot found predominantly in discovery era contexts. These trials in the casting of “composite” iron-cored lead shot, using comparable raw materials and a shot mold from the Molasses Reef wreck, have solved the decades-old riddle of how they were manufactured. Other experiments in the replication of exploratory period ordnance have been designed. Potential benefits from such experiments include compilation of the first empirical data on the true range, effectiveness, and rate of fire of such weapons, as well as estimates of useful life expectancy, minimum effective gun crew sizes, and limitations of tactical employment.

Comparison of sizes of pellet patterns fired with different lots of 0.410 gauge no. 4 shotshells

Four different lots of 0.410 gauge No. 4 shotshells manufactured by the same firm and having identical specifications were test fired at various ranges to determine the consistency of performance between lots. Five rounds from each lot were fired at ranges of 4.6, 6.1, 7.6 and 9.1 m (15, 20, 25 and 30 ft, respectively). The sizes of patterns were then measured by calculating the square root of the area of the smallest rectangle ( A ) that fully enclosed each pellet pattern. The mean and standard deviation of A were calculated for each five shot series. The z statistic was then calculated for paired lots of shotshells at each range of fire to test the hypothesis that the means of A for each lot were identical. The findings indicate that two lots of ammunition manufactured within days of one another show similar ballistic performances while those manufactured months apart have very different ballistic performances.

Ballistic Characteristics of Shot Shell Buffer

Abstract Many modern buckshot and larger diameter bird shot shotgun shells currently contain granulated plastic shot buffer. The presence of granulated buffer at a shooting scene provides valuable and immediate evidence of the general type of weapon and ammunition used. The ballistic characteristics of the buffer however are not commonly known but could be helpful in determining range of fire. Using felt targets and various types of 12 gauge shotguns and ammunition (2¾ in. shells), we discovered adherent buffer on the targets up to 20 ft (6.1 m) from the muzzle. Surprisingly, buffer would penetrate light cotton cloth (white T-shirt) at ranges up to or nearly up to the maximum range of adherent buffer on the plain felt targets. The diameter of buffer spread was up to 9 to 10 times that of the pellet spread. The buffer distribution diameter peaked at 3.3 ft (1.0 m) between the 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.1 m) range of fire and remained roughly constant at 28 in. (.7 m) throughout the buffer adherence range beyond 10 ft. Along the ground buffer was demonstrated up to 30 ft (9.2 m) from the muzzle but was concentrated in the 12 to 22 ft (3.7 to 6.7 m) range. Buffer clearly could be deposited on objects not struck by pellets. The presence of buffer, but not its distribution diameter, was helpful in determining range of fire.

Interpretation of Unusual Wounds Caused by Firearms

The interpretation of the range of fire of gunshot wounds requires coordination of information and observations from the autopsy surgeon, scene investigator, and laboratory analyst. Opinions based on incomplete information often lead to misinterpretation of the wound. The effects of interposed targets such as clothing, windows, and body parts are discussed. Case examples are given for interposed targets that cause confusing patterns and even lead to misidentification of the points of entrance and exit of the projectile in the body. The splitting of tissue in areas of bony prominence can be mistaken for evidence of discharge of a firearm at close range.

Tangential Low-velocity Missile Wound of the Head with Acute Subdural Hematoma: Case Report

Tangential missile wounds of the head without skull fracture are a known entity. Usually, references in the literature indicate that this type of injury results from a high-velocity missile impact. We present a case of a tangential missile head wound caused by a low-velocity missile. As the range of fire was short, the quantity of energy that might be released could be equated with that released by a high-velocity missile fired from a much longer range. This possibility should be brought to the attention of clinicians as an essential element in this pre-treatment clinical evaluation. We propose a pathomechanical explanation for the development of the clinical state.

Disturbance-Mediated Accelerated Succession in Two Michigan Forest Types

Abstract In northern lower Michigan, logging accelerated sugar maple (Acer saccharum) dominance in a northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) community, and clear-cutting and burning quickly converted certain sites dominated by mature jack pine (Pinus banksiana) to early-successional hardwoods, including Prunus, Populus, and Quercus. In both forest types the succeeding hardwoods should continue to increase in the future at the expense of the pioneer conifer species. In the cedar example, sugar maple was also increasing in an undistrubed, old-growth stand, but at a much reduced rate than in the logged stand. Traditionally, disturbance was thought to set back succession to some earlier stage. However, our study sites and at least several other North American forest communities exhibited accelerated succession following a wide range of disturbances, including logging, fire, ice storms, wind-throw, disease, insect attack, and herbicide spraying. For. Sci. 35(1):42-49.

Shotcup Petal Abrasions in Close Range .410-Caliber Shotgun Injuries

Shotcup petal abrasions centered around a shotgun wound of entrance are generally thought to occur at a range of 30 to 90 cm. A suicidal .410-caliber shotgun injury of the right eye is described in which typical petal abrasions were noted around the entrance wound. However, significant soot deposition around the wound suggested that the range of fire was less than 30 cm and perhaps closer to 15 cm. Test-firing of the weapon and ammunition used by the decedent showed some spread of the shotcup petals at a range of 7.5 cm, progressing to maximum spread at 30 to 52.5 cm. Further testing with other .410 ammunition, containing shotcups, confirmed the spread of shotcup petals at ranges less than 30 cm, irrespective of manufacturer, shotshell length, and birdshot size. When a variety of shotguns were tested, it was found that one weapon with a very short barrel and cylinder bore did not exhibit petal spread until a range of 30 cm was reached. The remaining shotguns, with longer barrels and full choke, all demonstrated definite petal spread at a range of 12.5 cm. The long, narrow configuration of .410 shotcup petals may explain their early spread and the production of petal abrasions at ranges of less than 30 cm.

The Spread of Firearms among the Indian Tribes on the Northern Frontier of New Spain

T HE INTRODUCTION OF FIREARMS AMONG THE TRIBES of the Spanish frontier drastically altered the balance of power there in favor of Spain's Indian enemies. Indians had engaged in intertribal wars long before the coming of Europeans, but the acquisition of guns intensified these traditional rivalries as various tribes incorporated this product of European technology into their conflicts. As guns became more common among the nomadic tribes of the Spanish frontier, the Spanish technological superiority that had made possible the conquest of the Antillies and the Aztecs disappeared. Thereafter, Spain was forced to fight her Indian enemies on an equal basis and with limited success. Hostile tribesmen had first used firearms during the Chichimec War (1550-1600). During that conflict, tribesmen in northern Mexico had used guns and swords as well as native weapons in their struggle with European invaders.1 Unlike tribes in the eastern United States, most Indian nations on the Spanish frontier never abandoned their native weapons. Guns remained of secondary importance after the bow and arrow among the Chichimecs and Apaches, for example, and were never the primary weapon of any southwestern tribe.2 This was due in part to the relative scarcity of firearms in the southwest, as well as the shortcomings of harquebuses in general: their range and rate of fire were inferior to the compound bow used by Native Americans. Only on the Louisiana frontier did guns replace bows and arrows as the primary weapons used by Indians. In that area of Texas, called the Piney Woods, the thick forest terrain diminished the effectiveness of native weapons. Nevertheless, all the Indians of the Spanish borderlands eagerly sought firearms for hunting and warfare because of the medicine attributed to such weapons as well as their striking power. The Spaniards who entered New Mexico in the sixteenth century discovered that the Indians in the southwestern United States had little fear of European-made weapons. In 1601, for example, Juan de Ofiate invaded the southern plains in search of the Seven Cities of Gold and was attacked by the Escanxaques, a Tonkawa band that occupied western Oklahoma.3 Apparently unimpressed by the noise

Regression Analysis Applied to Shotgun Range-of-Fire Estimations: Results of a Blind Study

Abstract Blind studies were conducted to determine if data from one lot of shotgun ammunition could be used to estimate the range of fire of a pattern fired with another lot of ammunition. Thirty pellet patterns were test fired with 00 buckshot and No. 9 birdshot at ranges of 3.1 to 15.2 m (10 to 5o ft) using a 12-gage shotgun. Regression analyses were performed on the spreads of the pellet patterns (calculated as the square root of the area of the smallest rectangle that would enclose the pellet pattern). In both cases linear functions best described the relationship between the range of fire and the spread of a pellet pattern. For the blind study, ten pellet patterns were fired at randomly selected ranges using a different lot of No. 9 birdshot cartridges from that used to determine the regression equation. In the case of the 00 buckshot ammunition, ten pellet patterns were fired at randomly selected ranges using 00 buckshot cartridges from a lot different from that used to determine the regression equation; ten pellet patterns were also fired at randomly selected ranges using 00 buckshot cartridges produced by a different company. Six pellet patterns were fired at a range of 15.2 m (50 ft) with ammunition from each lot used to fire the questioned pellet patterns. The spreads of these pellet patterns were statistically different (at the 95% level) from those fired at the same range with the ammunition used to obtain the regression equations. The means of the spreads of these six pellet patterns were used to calculate scaling factors for the questioned pellet patterns. The scaled spreads of the questioned pellet patterns were inserted into the appropriate regression equation to obtain the estimated range of fire for each of the questioned patterns. The 99% confidence intervals for the estimated ranges of fire were also calculated using the results of the regression analyses. In all cases the actual range of fire for each questioned pellet pattern fell within the 99% confidence interval for the estimated range of fire.

Fire Following Earthquake

Prepared by the Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering of ASCE. This TCLEE Monograph covers the entire range of fire following earthquake (FFE) issues, from historical fires to 20th-century fires in Kobe, San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, and Northridge. FFE has the potential of causing catastrophic losses in the United States, Japan, Canada, New Zealand, and other seismically active countries with wood houses. This comprehensive book on FFE and urban conflagrations provides state-of-the-practice insight on unique issues, such as large diameter flex hose applications by fire and water departments. Topics include: History of past fires; Computer modeling of fire spread in the post-earthquake urban environment; Concurrent damage and fire impacts for water, power gas, communication and transportation systems; Examples of reliable water systems built or designed in San Francisco, Vancouver, Berkeley, and Kyoto; Use of large diameter (5 in.) and ultra large diameter (12 in.) flex hose for fire fighting and water restoration; and Cost-effectiveness of various FFE mitigation strategies, with a detailed benefit-cost model. Water utility engineers, fire fighting professionals, and emergency response planners will benefit from reading this book.

Comparison of Methods for Estimating Range of Fire Based on the Spread of Buckshot Patterns

Abstract Three methods of measuring the spread of shotgun pellet patterns for the purpose of estimating the range of fire were applied to a series of 72 00 buckshot patterns test-fired at distances ranging from 3.6 to 10.7 m (12 to 35 ft). The methods applied were (1) the “effective shot dispersion” method of Mattoo and Nabar, (2) a method in which the area of the smallest circumscribed rectangle that will just enclose the pellet pattern is calculated, and (3) an overlay method for determining the radius of the smallest circumscribed circle that will just enclose the pellet pattern. Regression analysis was applied to the resulting measurements of the spread of the pellet patterns. The “effective shot dispersion” was found to give the best fit to a linear function and the best range-of-fire estimates. The area of the pellet patterns was found to be a quadratic function of the range of fire; this measure of pellet pattern spread was also found to have very large shot-to-shot variations. The square root of the area of the pellet pattern was found to be a linear function of the range and to give acceptable range-of-fire estimates.

The Application of Linear Regression to Range-of-Fire Estimates Based on the Spread of Shotgun Pellet Patterns

Abstract A series of shotgun pellet patterns were fired at ranges that varied from 3.9 to 15.2 m (10 to 50 ft) using a 12-gauge cylinder-bored shotgun firing No. 2 chilled shot cartridges. The spreads of the pellet patterns were measured in two ways: the radius of the smallest circle that would enclose the entire pattern was measured with a transparent overlay and the square root of the area of the smallest rectangle that would enclose the pattern was calculated. Linear regression analysis was applied to sets of data for shots at three, five, and nine ranges. For both measures of pattern spread the linear regression gave correlation coefficients greater than 0.99, indicating that a linear relationship existed between the measures of the pattern spreads and the range of fire. The confidence intervals for range-of-fire estimates at the 95% confidence level were calculated for each set of data. As expected, increasing the number of test-fired patterns decreases the confidence interval and so improves the range-of-fire estimates obtained from the test-fired patterns.

Tempered Plate Glass as an Intermediate Target and Its Effects on Gunshot Wound Characteristics

Abstract Gunshot entrance wounds may be markedly atypical when an intermediate object alters the behavior of a projectile. There may be confusion about weapon caliber, weapon type, and range of fire. A case demonstrating the effects of an intermediate glass target on a wound is presented.

Characteristics and Wounding Effects of a Black Powder Handgun

Commercial exploitation of the recent increase in interest in American history has led to an increased availability of weapons designed to use black powder (gunpowder). In some states, controls on these weapons are poor or nonexistent. In this study a .44-caliber black powder revolver is described and compared with a .45 ACP modern revolver. The kinetic energies of their missiles were very similar. In addition to the usual wound appearances determined by range and direction of fire, it was noted that the soot associated with wounds from the black powder handgun was much greater than from the control and had a characteristic sulfurous smell. Much more true tattooing was present around the black powder wounds. The spherical shape of the missile and the presence of black powder in crypts in the missile base were both characteristic of a black powder revolver. Striations were well represented on the ball but were easily destroyed during recovery because the lead was so soft. Swabs from around the wounds and from the shooter's hand revealed a large deposit of barium but little antimony. Wounds inflicted by black powder handguns may be detected more or less reliably.

Determining Sequence of Fire in Gunshot Wounds: Two Case Reports

Abstract There are many facts that can usually be learned about a gunshot wound during a forensic autopsy. These include the range of fire (contact, near, or distant range), the path through which the bullet entered the body, what caliber bullet or bullets were used (and which was probably the fatal shot), and, finally, specifically, what gun fired the fatal shot if the bullet removed at autopsy is found to match a suspected weapon. Sometimes, when a defective weapon has been used, the bullet holes and the bullet will show that the firearm was defective. All of these facts are very helpful in understanding the circumstances surrounding a death.