Ranch Operators Research Articles

Cost of agricultural injuries in the United States: Estimates based on surveillance, insurance, and government statistics.

Agriculture is a hazardous industry but the frequency and severity of agricultural injuries are not well documented as nonfatal injuries to self-employed farmers are excluded from national surveillance. The aim of this study was to provide new injury rate and cost estimates in US agriculture. Injury data were obtained from 2018 to 2020 Farm and Ranch Health and Safety Surveys. Responses from 7,195 farm/ranch operators included injury frequency, medical expense, and lost work time data. These injury rate and cost data were used to estimate national injury costs for self-employed farmers using Census of Agriculture operator count, injury costs for hired agricultural workers using Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) nonfatal injury count, and fatal injury costs using BLS count of fatal injuries. The injury rate for self-employed farmers and ranchers was 15.25 injuries per 100 operators or 11.9 "recordable" injuries per 100 full time equivalent operators (FTE). Average costs for nonfatal injuries were: $10,878 for medical care, $4735 for lost work time, and $15,613 in total per injury case. The total national agricultural injury cost estimate was $11.31 billion per year; 11.3% higher than the earlier benchmark using 1992 data; both in March 2024 dollars. The cost burden was 2.1% of the US national gross farm income and 13.4% of the net farm income in 2019. Injuries result in significant economic losses to farm and ranch operators, their family members, workers, and society. Preventive efforts should be scaled up to reduce the frequency and costs of agricultural injuries.

Injury, Musculoskeletal Symptoms, and Stress as a Function of Aging in Agricultural Operators in the Central United States.

Studies show conflicting evidence on the association of age and occupational injury in agriculture, and few studies have addressed the effect of age on work-related chronic conditions or preventive practices among farmers. We examined the probability of injury, work-related stress, musculoskeletal symptoms (MSS), and preventive practices for MSS as a function of aging using surveillance data of 7,711 farm and ranch operators in the central United States. Segmented regression analyses of men (85% of sample) indicated that the probability of all four outcomes increased up to a certain age and then decreased; the changepoints in years of age being 59.6 for injury, 55.4 for work-related stress, 59.6 for MSS, and 67.9 for MSS preventive practices. Female operators had an increasing trend for stress up to age 29.7, while they showed no changepoints across their age spectrum in the proportion of injury, MSS, and prevention techniques. These findings emphasize the need for preventive efforts particularly among younger and middle-aged farmers and ranchers, and the need to modify work duties to match work abilities at older ages.

Work-Related Stress as a Risk Factor for Farm Injuries in the Central United States

Highlights Operators reporting stress had 1.9 times as many injuries per year compared to those who did not report stress. Stress, sleep deprivation, and fatigue showed a similar positive association with injuries. Hearing loss and exposure to animal and/or chemical-based allergens were also risk factors for injury. Musculoskeletal pain/discomfort was strongly associated with injuries, making it a potential risk factor or a consequence. Abstract. This study evaluated the association of self-reported occupational stress and injury among farm and ranch operators in the central United States. Randomly sampled operators received mail surveys with questions related to injuries, chronic health conditions, work exposures, and preventive measures in 2018 and 2020. Injury risk factors were analyzed using Poisson regression analysis. Out of 6,744 participants, 836 (12%) reported at least one injury in the past 12 months and 1,766 (26%) reported work-related stress. The percentage of those reporting stress was 24% among those with no injuries, 36% among those with one injury, and 66% among those with two or more injuries. Similar percentages across the three injury categories were found for sleep deprivation (21%, 30%, and 51%) and fatigue (25%, 39%, and 66%). A high perceived stress level was a risk factor for injury in the final adjusted model (adjusted Rate Ratio (aRR): 1.93, 95% CI: 1.65 to 2.25) when controlling for hearing loss (aRR: 1.25, CI: 1.25 to 1.75) and exposure to animal and/or chemical based allergens (aRR: 1.49, CI: 1.17 to 1.91). With musculoskeletal symptoms (MSS) in the model, the association of stress and injuries was attenuated (aRR: 1.54, CI: 1.32 to 1.79) while MSS had a strong association with injuries (aRR: 3.79, CI: 3.00 to 4.78). Stress, sleep deprivation, and fatigue were associated with injuries in a dose-response manner. Preventing injuries among farmers and ranchers requires a focus on stress reduction and related health conditions. Keywords: Agriculture, Fatigue, Hearing Loss, Injury, Musculoskeletal discomfort, Stress.

Prevalence and Risk Factors for Pulmonary Conditions among Farmers and Ranchers in the Central United States

ABSTRACT This study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence and risk factors for work-related respiratory conditions (asthma, farmer’s lung, sinusitis, rhinitis, and environmental allergies, diagnosed by a physician) among farm and ranch operators in the central US. A survey was conducted by the Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health (CS-CASH) in 2018, focusing on work-related injuries, illnesses, exposures, and preventive measures in a seven-state region (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota). Farms and ranches (n = 16,818) with an email address and annual sales exceeding $5,000 were randomly selected for the survey. Agricultural production and weather data were merged with survey responses. The relationship between exposures and respiratory conditions was analyzed using generalized estimating equations. We received responses from 3,268 agricultural operations (19% response rate) containing information on 4,064 individual operators. The life-time prevalence of (any) respiratory conditions among farm/ranch operators was 18%. Risk factors for respiratory conditions included exposures to grain/hay/feed dust (OR 2.41), animal confinement dust (OR 1.57), field/road dust (OR 2.11), manure/silage gasses (OR 1.66), anhydrous ammonia (OR 1.51), fuels/solvents/paints (OR 1.92), older age group >70 vs. <43 (OR 1.40), female gender (OR 1.82), and being primary vs. third operator (OR 1.61). Farmers and ranchers have a high prevalence of respiratory conditions associated with dust and gas exposures at work. More effective protective measures are needed using the hierarchy of controls, including improved use of respiratory protection.

Occupational stress among farm and ranch operators in the midwestern United States

BackgroundThis study used surveillance data from 2018 and 2020 to test the stability of work-related strain symptoms (high stress, sleep deprivation, exhaustion) with demographic factors, work characteristics, and musculoskeletal symptoms among farm and ranch operators in seven midwestern states of the United States.MethodsCross-sectional surveys were conducted among farm and ranch operators in 2018 (n = 4423) and 2020 (n = 3492). Operators were asked whether, in the past 12 months, they experienced extended work periods that resulted in high stress levels, sleep deprivation, exhaustion/fatigue, or other work-related strain symptoms. Covariates included personal and demographic factors, work characteristics, number of injuries, work-related health conditions, and exposures on the operation. Summary statistics were tabulated for explanatory and outcome variables. The classification (decision) tree approach was used to assess what variables would best separate operators with and without reported strain symptoms, based on a set of explanatory variables. Regularized regression was used to generate effect estimates between the work strain variables and explanatory variables.ResultsHigh stress level, sleep deprivation, and exhaustion were reported more frequently in 2018 than 2020. The classification tree reproduced the 2018 model using 2020 data with approximately 80% accuracy. The mean number of reported MSD symptoms increased slightly from 1.23 in 2018 to 1.41 in 2020. Older age, more time spent in farm work, higher gross farm income (GFI), and MSD symptoms in six body regions (ankles/feet, knees, lower back, neck, shoulders, wrists/hands) were associated with all three work strain symptoms.ConclusionsMusculoskeletal pain and discomfort was a strong predictor for stress, sleep deprivation, and exhaustion among farmers and ranchers. This finding indicates that reducing MSD pain and discomfort is beneficial for both physical and mental health.

JA:2021-15. Respiratory Exposures and Diseases among Agricultural Workers in the Central States Region of the United States

ABSTRACT Purpose: The Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health (CS-CASH) conducts surveillance to characterize occupational injury and illness frequencies, exposures, and preventive practices among farm and ranch operators in the central United States. This report focuses on respiratory diseases and associated exposures and preventive factors. Methods: The CS-CASH Farm and Ranch Health and Safety Survey was sent to randomly selected farmers and ranchers with an email address and farm sales exceeding 5000 per year; 22,440 by email (online survey) and 16,826 by mail (hardcopy form). The survey region consisted of Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Risk factors for respiratory disease (all combined, except chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) were evaluated using logistic regression. Results: A total of 3,277 usable responses (response rate 19.47%) were received. The prevalence of respiratory diseases diagnosed by a physician were: asthma, 4.22%; farmer’s lung, 2.22%; sinus disease (sinusitis), 4.75%; nasal inflammation/runny nose (rhinitis), 5.25%; and environmental allergies, 8.27%. The following exposures significantly increased the odds of having a respiratory disease: exposure to grain/feed/hay dust (Odds Ratio (OR): 2.15); animal confinement dust (OR: 1.57); road dust (OR: 2.03); manure and silage gasses (OR: 1.64), anhydrous ammonia (OR: 1.47); fuels/solvents/paints (OR: 1.82); having cow/calf operation (OR: 1.26); growing wheat (OR: 1.28); and growing canola (OR: 1.70). Practical Application: These findings demonstrate the need for effective methods to control dust and gas exposures to reduce the risk of respiratory diseases among farmers and ranchers.

Pre-Testing Establishment Surveys: Moving Beyond the Lab

Cognitive interviewing is a widely used method for ensuring that survey questions produce valid data. In household surveys, cognitive interviewing is typically conducted by experienced survey methodologists in laboratory settings. Agencies with laboratories can conduct multiple cognitive interviews in a day using small staffs of experienced methodologists, thus reducing costs and expediting the research process. However, when populations are hard to reach, methodologists must travel to participants. In these situations, cognitive interviewing can be a very time- consuming and expensive method. In surveys of establishments, cognitive interviewing is almost always conducted outside of a laboratory setting. Researchers must travel to multiple establishment sites that are not always geographically close to one another. At the United States Department of Agriculture’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), cognitive interviewing has been limited due to the rural nature and geographic distribution of our survey universe, namely, farm and ranch operators. In 2014, NASS expanded its cognitive interviewing program by training production staff in state and regional offices to conduct cognitive interviews, under the direction of survey methodologists at NASS’s headquarters office. This paper discusses how the expanded cognitive interview training program was planned and developed; describes experiences and lessons learned; and outlines NASS’s plan to continue using its nontraditional cognitive interviewing program.

Wildfire Associated Health Risks Impacting Farmers and Ranchers

ABSTRACTThe incidence of large, uncontained wildfires in North America has increased in recent years, significantly impacting both urban and agriculturally-focused areas. The physical damage and health pressures left in the wake of uncontrolled fires has especially devastated farm and ranch operators in affected areas, prompting concern from the community of healthcare providers and advocates servicing this specialized occupational population. The AgriSafe Network, a leading health advocacy organization centered in agricultural health, conducted an interactive webinar with nationally recognized knowledge thought leaders as a response to this crisis. Results identified primary, action-critical issues as an initiatives roadmap for future focused precision research and targeted educational efforts. Think tank initiatives provide intelligible guidance that can lead to tractable interventions for agricultural populations effected by wildfires.

Opportunities and barriers for endangered species conservation using payments for ecosystem services

Endangered species laws seek to prevent extinction by outlawing actions that may cause harm or lead to extinction. In doing so, these laws are sometimes criticized for limiting management flexibility and subjecting landowners to regulatory burdens. One proposed solution to this challenge is development of payment for ecosystem service (PES) programs. These programs provide an economic incentive to conserve endangered species by compensating landowners for the costs of conservation or forgoing other profitable uses of land and resources. To assess the utility of PES as a means of overcoming opposition to endangered species regulations, we surveyed ranch operators in Arizona and New Mexico facing new regulations related to endangered jaguars (Panthera onca). Our findings suggest that PES cannot overcome the perceived burdens of species protection regulations and are unlikely to increase collaboration between landowners and government agencies. PES approaches are only likely to succeed where there is strong fit between institutional design and resource manager preferences. In the context of endangered species, PES proponents must pay particular attention to institutional arrangements that reduce concerns about regulatory risk. To this end, to effectively meet endangered species conservation goals, we recommend: 1) framing PES programs as voluntary conservation incentives, 2) focusing incentives on healthy ecosystems rather than a single species, and 3) using private funding to support incentives. Under these circumstances, PES may be an effective endangered species conservation tool.

Tradeoffs, balancing, and adaptation in the agriculture-oil and gas nexus: Insights from farmers and ranchers in the United States

This paper seeks to expand an emerging, multi-disciplinary body of work about tradeoffs in the agriculture-oil and gas nexus by offering evidence of the ways that farm and ranch operators experienced and negotiated costs and benefits of hosting oil and gas in three U.S. oil and gas plays. We report results of mail survey sent to landowners in four rural counties in three U.S. oil and gas regions (Marcellus, Powder River Basin and Bakken) and specifically data from farmers and ranchers about perceptions and experiences of the agriculture-oil and gas nexus (n = 96). The data provided through closed- and open-ended questions suggest, from the perspective of those hosting energy infrastructure on farms and ranches, oil and gas development has enhanced agriculture operations and rural livelihoods but is not without negative impacts or tradeoffs. We introduce the balancing act as a useful framework for considering tradeoffs associated with hosting extractive industries as it allows space for the “balance” between economic activities to be impossible, aspirational or achievable. The study observes that mechanisms through which positive and negative effects operate vary according to agricultural context. Implications for research and practice in the agriculture-energy nexus are discussed.

Influences on farmer and rancher interest in supplying woody biomass for energy in the US Northern Great Plains

State and federal policy targets for renewable energy production in the US have prompted investigations into the feasibility of different biomass feedstock types for use in transportation fuels or electricity production. Woody biomass systems can be integrated strategically within agricultural systems for multifunctional benefits while building regional biomass supply capacity. In order to assess the potential for biomass-based bioenergy, it is essential to characterize the interest that potential suppliers have in such an endeavor. In the US Northern Great Plains region (North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas), this begins with assessing relevant perceptions of farmers and ranchers. Results from a 2014 survey of farm and ranch operators managing agriculturally marginal farmland indicated that 61% of operators have some degree of interest in woody biomass production. An ordered probit regression was utilized to further investigate how farm system attributes, individual farmer/rancher characteristics, relevant attitudes, knowledge, and perceived constraints affect interest. This study highlights attributes of operators who are most likely to be early adopters of a woody biomass crop and has implications for the development of relevant policy initiatives and management practices.

Injury risk factors to farm and ranch operators in the Central United States.

This study focused on risk factors for serious injuries in farm and ranch operators in the central United States. The Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health, in collaboration with the National Agricultural Statistics Service, sent mail surveys to 6953, 6912, and 6912 farms/ranches in 2011-2013, respectively, covering seven Midwestern states. The average survey response rate was 35%. The average annual incidence rate (injuries/100 workers) was 6.91 for all injuries and 2.40 for serious injuries. Univariate analyses determined several demographic and farm production-related risk factors for serious injury. Adjusted analysis showed a greater risk of serious injury for operators of age 45-54 years (vs. 65 and higher), those who worked 75-99% of their time (vs. less time), and those who operated larger land areas (vs. smaller). The identified risk factors should be considered when targeting injury prevention programs.

Wyoming's Aging Agricultural Landscape: Demographic Trends Among Farm and Ranch Operators, 1920–2007

On the Ground • Across the United States, farmers and ranchers are getting older, and fewer young operators are entering the agricultural workforce than in the past. • We statistically and cartographically explored demographic trends among farm and ranch operators in Wyoming to see if and how the agricultural community was aging. • Census records indicate that Wyoming's agricultural community is in fact aging, and that the relative proportions of younger operators are dwindling rapidly. • With a changing local agricultural community, we face risks associated with loss of local knowledge, loss of tradition, and loss of investment that stem from a deep-rooted sense of place. • We face a fundamental challenge in inspiring young agriculturalists to take up residence in the state to help replace those of retirement age. • This might be accomplished through shifts in education, public policy, economic incentives, or through targeted cultivation of personal connections to the land.

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF LOCALLY GROWN FOOD: THE CASE OF INDIANA AQUACULTURE PRODUCTS

Many Indiana small- and medium-sized farm and ranch operators are looking at aquaculture to diversify their operations, but the underlying thought for most of these potential aquaculturists is the feasibility of raising fish, and whether consumers will be interested in Indiana aquaculture products. The study used an ordered probit model to examine Indiana consumers' interests in Indiana farm-raised aquaculture products. The model did not predict any non-interest but predicted 18% probability of consumers that are somewhat interested, 58% for consumers that are interested and 24% for consumers that are strongly interested. Factors that positively affected interest in Indiana aquaculture products were previous purchase of farm-raised aquaculture products, frequent at-home seafood consumption—once per week, and being at least 36 years of age. While consumers in the household income $20,000–$59,999 group showed interest, households with higher incomes were less interested. Prices that consumers are willing to pay for Indiana seafood products are within the range of market seafood prices in Indiana. However, consumers will not be interested in Indiana aquaculture products as premiums for the products increase.

Assessing Senior Farmers’ Perceptions of Tractor and Machinery-related Hazards

Agricultural injury data over the last 25 years have consistently shown a highproportion of cases involving senior farmers and agricultural workers. Farm tractors arethe most commonly reported causal agent for fatalities in this population.Understanding of the specific causal factors associated with this apparent risk, however,remains very limited, and to date, the safety and health professions response has notbeen commensurate with the need. In order to develop effective safety programsdesigned to impact a specific population or audience, it is necessary to conductformative research to gain a thorough understanding of the beliefs, perceptions,attitudes, and influences of the people within that population. The research discussed inthis article represents the formative, or pre-production, component of current efforts todevelop safety programs to reduce tractor and machinery-related injuries among senior(age 60 and older) farm and ranch operators and agricultural workers.<br><br>This research utilized a national survey (n = 295) to examine senior farmersperceptions of tractor and machinery-related risks, as well as safety-related beliefs,major safety influences, and safety information preferences. Senior farmers ratings oftractor-related risks reflected perceptions that such hazards were only moderately riskyin relation to other farm hazards, though 83% of this group agreed tractor-relatedinjuries are generally severe. Findings indicated that senior farmers may undervalue thebenefit of ROPS. While 88% agreed ROPS are effective in preventing injuries, only42% of the senior farmers reported having ROPS on their primary tractors.Furthermore, only 26% believed that the protective benefits provided by ROPSoutweighed the costs and inconvenience of installing and using them. This articleconcludes with a brief discussion of the implications of risk perceptions and personalbeliefs for the development of injury intervention programs for the senior farmpopulation.

Psychological Type of Farm/Ranch Operators: Relationship to Financial Measures

Psychological characteristics of farm and ranch operators influence business decisions and the ability of the business to respond effectively to changes in the operating environment. A study was conducted to identify the psychological type of farm families and the effect of type a management objectives. The rural population studied was found to have different psychological preferences than the general population. These differences affect decision processes and have implications for group actions, effective education programs, and acceptable public policies. Consultants working with farm families will be more effective if these preferences are recognized.

North Dakota Farm and Nonfarm Residents' Views on Financial Assistance Policies

AbstractAssistance to financially stressed farmers and agricultural creditors has become a major agricultural policy issue. Findings reported here suggest that North Dakota nonmetropolitan residents have mixed feelings concerning the appropriateness of such aid. Between 30 and 40 percent of the farm and ranch operators surveyed supported state or federal aid (about one‐fourth were neutral). Business operators were less likely to favor such aid (only 31 percent supported federal aid and 26 percent agreed with aid from the state). Other nonfarm residents and former farmers, on the other hand, were more supportive of assistance programs than farmers. Results of this survey revealed a strong inverse relationship between a farm operator's financial status and his attitude toward financial assistance from the federal or state government. Similar results were observed for the other groups of rural residents; households with lower levels of income and net worth typically were more favorable to assistance programs.

The Impact of Grazing Systems on the Magnitude and Stability of Ranch Income in the Rolling Plains of Texas

Results of a 1961-1974 grazing system study on the Texas Experimental Ranch in the Rolling Plains were used to evaluate annual net income stability characteristics for a cow-calf opera- tion. A linear programming risk analysis model was utilized to select optimal combinations of grazing systems which minimized annual negative net income fluctuations. Greatest annual net incomes, expressed in 1979 dollars, were obtained from heavier stocked, continuously grazed systems which received winter feed. For the 1961-1974 period, annual net income stability was not increased by selecting combination of grazing systems. However, when only the last 5 years were included in the analysis, the stability of annual net income was improved by selecting a combination of grazing systems. Supplemental winter feeding did not have a signif- icant effect on annual net incomes. However, under heavier stock- ing rates the standard deviation of annual net income was approximately doubled when cows did not receive supplemental winter feed. Annual income and income variability was determined to have increased during the last 5 years of the study, relative to the total study period. It is hypothesized that a portion of this increased variability at the heavier rates of stocking is the result of changes in the composition of vegetation. The general increase in variability across all systems indicates that ranch operators may need to consider alternatives for risk management as well as man- agement for profits. Ranch operators have long strived to become more efficient in the management of their ranch resources. This effort has been made in order to increase economic returns and reduce economic risks associated with ranching. Risks in the ranching industry are as a result of the nature of livestock market, weather, diseases, prices paid for inputs, the use of credit, and government regulation. In the Rolling Plains of Texas, and in the Great Plains in general, the need to reduce adverse economic impacts of fluctuating forage supplies has resulted in considerable research efforts by public institutions and agencies. A major goal of range research is to identify alternatives to more efficient harvest forage from range- land and to increase forage quantity and quality for use by domes- tic livestock. The major purpose of this study was to evaluate net returns and the annual stability of these net returns from five grazing management systems in the Rolling Plains of Texas from 1961 to 1974 (Fig. 1). In developing a ranch management plan, it is assumed that net income levels and net income stability (risk) associated with var- ious production strategies for increasing net income are of concern to ranch operators (Markowitz 1959). Agricultural firm managers

Nitrogen Fertilization of Northern Great Plains Rangelands

Research studies as well as the experience of individual ranch operators have shown that range land has a great potential for increased production. It is known that reseeding, weed and brush control, and proper management can do much to improve the range and increase the return per acre of land. A few recent studies on the use of fertilizers on native grasslands have indicated that here also may be a method of range improvement and of increasing the return per acre.

Montana Future Farmers and Range Management

The fonndation of the Montana livestock industry is based on the thonsanas of acres of land not suited for cultivation. The future of this industry depends upon the proper use to be made of this land. What arr Montana Future Farmers doing to insure the future of the lirrstock industry and their own future ? Grass yield, measured in terms of livestock products, is it subject of wry high interest to Montana Future Farmers. They l but the greater emphasis on range improvement is in the range-l&stock areas of the state. The study of range management is spreading to the more diversified crop areas of the state. Since the agricultural needs and demands are becoming n~ore intensified, the farm oprrators in the diversified areas are beginning to realize the value alla inrportanee of the foothill and fringe range areas SUI‘. ronnding the land used for intensive crop production. Increased Interest In Range Management The change in the outlook and attitudes of the farmers and ranchers of the state is dne in a large degree to the efforts of the wrions agricultural organizations. These organizations are responsible for promoting and developing H need for greater conservation end utilization of the resources which nature has provided. The organizations which have taken the lead in range promotion are the Soil Connervetion Service, For& Serrice, County Extension Service, Cocational Agricultural Tearhers Assoeirttion, banks and industry. The personnel of these orpitnizations have foreseen the value of promoting and stimulating o range eau&ion program for ranch operators and youth groups who are. and will be, the owners and managers of Montana’s grratrnt resource-GRASS. Progrens in range education at college and high school level has been slow in developing in oomparison to other phases of agrieultore in Montana. Montana State College offered only one course in pitatore ana range mnnapement to its agricultural stuaents prior to 1942. Since that time, an expanded basic range course has been required for most agricultural undergraduates. This course has awakened them to the fact that range management is a phase of agriculture that has been negidea. In an attempt to alleviate this situation, some Montnna VoAg teachers attempted to teach range management to their high school students. The program w&s not too effective because the techers were not equipped with the necessary tools to accomplish the task. The majority of the information available w&s highly teehnieal, and many of the teachers were not &ware of the resource people available to help them. Mr. Turner, formerly of the Soil Conservation Service at Dillon, Montana, was contacted in 1951, to lenrn if teaching aids were available through the American Society of Range Management. With Mr. Turner’s assistance, the aid offered by this organization was placed on a regional basis and the Montana Vo-Ag Teachers were supplied with B list of Society members in the state. The instructors at the lS51 Sumlner Vo-Ag Conference discussed the problem of teaching range management to Vo-Ag classes in high school. The teachers expremed the neea for & range management course to be offered at the 1952 summer school session at Montana state College.