Raised Bed Planting Research Articles

Effects of conservation agriculture on runoff, soil loss and crop yield under rainfed conditions in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

AbstractThe aim of conservation agriculture (CA) is to improve soil quality and crop yield whilst reducing runoff and topsoil erosion. An experiment was carried out in a rainfed field using a permanent raised bed planting system for 3 yr (2005–2007) in Adigudem, northern Ethiopia in order to evaluate the effect of CA on runoff, soil loss and crop yield. CA practices were introduced in fields with Vertisols in a randomized complete block design on permanent 5 × 19 m plots. Three treatments were evaluated: (1) conventional tillage (CT) with a minimum of three tillage operations and removal of crop residues, (2) terwah (TER) that was similar to CT except that contour furrows were included at 1.5 m intervals, and (3) derdero+ (DER+), which consists of permanent raised beds with a furrow and bed system, retention of 30% of standing crop residues and zero tillage on the top of the bed. All ploughing as well as the maintenance of the furrows of the permanent raised beds was done using a local ard plough called maresha. Results from monitoring over 3 yr showed that soil loss and runoff were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in CT followed by TER and DER+. Average soil losses of 5.2, 20.1 and 24.2 t/ha were recorded from DER+, TER and CT, respectively. Runoff was 46.3, 76.3 and 98.1 mm from DER+, TER and CT, respectively. Grain yield was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in DER+ under teff in 2006, probably due to the high sensitivity of teff to weeds. The yield of wheat in 2007 was significantly higher in DER+ followed by TER. The terwah system is recommended as a first measure for wider adoption to reduce runoff and soil loss and to increase crop yield. The long‐term goal is to achieve a derdero+ system, i.e. a permanent raised bed planting system along with the application of crop residues.

Enhancing Green Water in Soils of South Asia

Enhancing green water (GW) in soils has vast significance with respect to depleting water resources, especially in South Asia (SA). The water stored in soil that's productively used for transpiration is called GW. The enhancement of GW includes all those techniques and approaches that lead to increased soil-water storage and infiltration, reduced runoff, and decreased evaporation, such as minimum tillage, mulching, terracing, small-scale water harvesting and recycling, contouring, and strip cultivation. Because rice (Oryza sativa) is a dominant crop in SA and it requires four to five times more water than other cereals, adoption of new techniques like direct dry seeding, wet seeding, system of rice intensification (SRI), intermittent irrigation, soil matric potential-based irrigation, laser land leveling, and raised-bed planting can save 20–87% of irrigation water. Enhancing GW in soils is important to achieving a much-needed new Green Revolution in countries faced with the dire issue of food insecurity. Many water-stressed countries can produce enough food for their populations provided that the GW is enhanced and managed well. More food means more consumptive use of the so-called GW flow (vapor flow sustaining crop growth). The present level of food production requires some 7,000 km3/yr of consumptive freshwater (i.e., GW as evapotranspiration), of which 1,800 km3/yr originates from blue water use (i.e., runoff water in irrigation) and the remaining 5,200 km3/yr from direct GW use. Identification and use of efficient GW-management techniques necessitate a thorough knowledge of social, biophysical, economic, and practical aspects, and these must be in accord with the existing farming systems. A new approach to water management, integrated water-resource management (IWRM), is widely recognized as a pathway toward sustainability. The IWRM in SA countries can increase productivity by 28% to 120%, while also reducing runoff by 26% to 66% and soil loss by 20% to 43%, and raising the groundwater level by 4 to 5 meters. A policy shift is needed and incentives through GW credits must be given to the farmers for adopting and maintaining best practices for enhancing GW in soil.

Layering Precision Land Leveling and Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed Planting: Productivity and Input Use Efficiency of Irrigated Bread Wheat in Indo-Gangetic Plains

Stagnating yield and declining input use efficiency in irrigated wheat of the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) coupled with diminishing availability of water for agriculture is a major concern of food security in South Asia. The objective of our study was to establish an understanding of how wheat yield and input use efficiency can be improved and how land leveling and crop establishment practices can be modified to be more efficient in water use through layering of precision-conservation crop management techniques. The “precision land leveling with raised bed” planting can be used to improve crop yield, water and nutrient use efficiency over the existing “traditional land leveling with flat” planting practices. We conducted a field experiment during 2002-2004 at Modipuram, India to quantify the benefits of alternate land leveling (precision land leveling) and crop establishment (furrow irrigated raised bed planting) techniques alone or in combination (layering precision-conservation) in terms of crop yield, water savings, and nutrient use efficiency of wheat production in IGP. The wheat yield was about 16.6% higher with nearly 50% less irrigation water with layering precision land leveling and raised bed planting compared to traditional practices (traditional land leveling with flat planting). The agronomic (AE) and uptake efficiency (UE) of N, P and K were significantly improved under precision land leveling with raised bed planting technique compared to other practices.

Permanent raised bed planting of the pigeonpea–wheat system on a Typic Ustochrept: Effects on soil fertility, yield, and water and nutrient use efficiencies

In the Indo-Gangetic Plain region, a major deterrent to large scale adoption of the otherwise advantageous pigeonpea–wheat cropping system is the poor crop stand of pigeonpea due to temporary water logging during the rainy (monsoon) season, leading to its low productivity and a smaller residual effect on the succeeding wheat crop. The permanent raised bed (PRB) system of planting, as widely used particularly for wheat in different countries, has seldom been studied in the pigeonpea–wheat system. We, therefore, conducted a field experiment at Modipuram (29°4′N, 77°46′E, 237 m asl), India, for 3 consecutive years (2001–02 to 2003–04) to evaluate the PRB vis-à-vis the conventional flat bed (FB) system of planting at varying fertilizer NP rates in the pigeonpea–wheat system, in terms of changes in soil organic carbon, nutrient and water use efficiencies, annual productivity and economic returns. Pigeonpea grown on PRB had lower plant mortality (4–7%) and higher yield (1.6–2.1 t ha −1) as compared to FB with 26–36% mortality and yield of 1.3–1.8 t ha −1. Pigeonpea on PRB had greater N and P recycling (11–23% N and 8–14% P) through its residue comprising root, stubble and leaf litter. Although wheat yield following pigeonpea under PRB was lower ( p < 0.05) compared with that under FB, the system productivity in terms of wheat equivalent yield was 8.44% higher under PRB. The economic optimum doses of fertilizer N and P for wheat in the pigeonpea–wheat system were smaller (128 kg N and 28 kg P ha −1) under PRB as compared to FB (152 kg N and 30 kg P ha −1) owing to increased N and P supply, greater P use efficiency and a better crop growth environment under PRB planting. The N use efficiency indices were significantly greater ( p < 0.05) in wheat under FB compared to those under PRB. By contrast, P use efficiency was greater under PRB, particularly in treatments that received both N and P fertilizers. Compared with FB, the root mass density (20–46%) of wheat was also greater under PRB in surface and sub-surface soil layers. PRB favored saving of irrigation water by 9.5–13.4 ha cm and improved the irrigation application efficiency by 9.5–13.4% and the irrigation use efficiency by 19–28 kg ha cm −1 over FB. The post-wheat harvest nitrate N (NO 3-N) at 20–40 cm soil depth in plots fertilized with 120 or 180 kg N ha −1 was greater under FB planting (10.25–13.81 mg kg −1) compared to PRB (7.33–8.42 mg kg −1), suggesting that PRB planting might reduce NO 3-N leaching to deeper soil layers. Similarly, in the treatments that received both N and P, NO 3-N in soil below 20 cm depth was lower compared to those receiving N or P alone. After three crop cycles, soil OC and the Olsen-P content in the 0–20 cm depth were increased compared to the initial content under both planting techniques but the magnitude of increase was greater under PRB. Compared with FB, the annual net returns of the pigeonpea–wheat system were greater by US$ 210 ha −1 under PRB, and the crop also required less specific energy (1.99 MJ kg −1) compared with the FB planting (3.18 MJ kg −1).

A Root‐Zone Soil Regime of Wheat: Physiological and Growth Responses to Furrow Irrigation in Raised Bed Planting in Northern China

Different irrigation methods in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) result in different water and nutrient use efficiencies and, ultimately, plant growth. A field experiment was conducted during the 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 crop cycles to investigate the effects of furrow irrigated raised bed planting and the effects of flood irrigated conventional planting on growth and productivity in winter wheat. In Zadoks Stages 5–31, wheat that was grown in raised bed planting suffered from a lower soil temperature by producing fewer tillers per plant with much slower growth and development than wheat grown in conventional planting. Subsequent flood irrigation in conventional planting improved soil moisture status while increasing soil bulk density and caused a deep percolation of irrigation water and soil nutrients. In contrast, furrow irrigation in a raised bed planting system improved root‐zone soil moisture and nutrient regimes, decreased soil bulk density by 8.5 to 10.4%, increased soil respiration by 3.2 to 10.4%, root vitality by 4.8 to 8.9%, and root dry weight by 2.8 to 3.7%. Consequently, compared with the conventional planting, the furrow‐irrigated wheat in raised bed planting developed greater leaf photosynthetic capacity, Photosystem II (PSII) potential (Fv/Fm), and actual (ΦPSII) quantum yields of photochemical processes, leaf area index (LAI), and dry matter accumulation (DMA). Ultimately, wheat on raised beds produced a grain yield of 698.7 g m−2, 7.6% higher than that in conventional planting. Based on these data, we can conclude that furrow‐irrigated raised bed planting optimizes the root‐zone soil regime, promotes plant growth and development, and increases wheat productivity.

Evaluation of precision land leveling and double zero-till systems in the rice–wheat rotation: Water use, productivity, profitability and soil physical properties

In recent years conventional production technologies in the rice–wheat (RW) system have been leading to deterioration of soil health and declining farm profitability due to high inputs of water and labour. Conservation agriculture (CA)-based resource-conserving technologies (RCTs) vis-à-vis zero-till (ZT), raised-bed planting and direct-seeded rice (DSR) have shown promise as alternatives to conventional production technologies to overcome these problems. The integration of CA-based RCTs with precision agriculture (PA)-based technologies in a systems perspective could provide a better option for sustainable RW production systems. In this study we attempted to evaluate conservation and precision agriculture (CPA)-based RCTs as a double-ZT system integrated with laser-assisted precision land leveling (PLL) in the RW system. A field experiment was conducted in the western IGP for 2 years to evaluate various tillage and crop establishment methods under PLL and traditional land leveling (TLL) practices to improve water productivity, economic profitability and soil physical quality. Irrespective of tillage and crop establishment methods (TCE), PLL improved RW system productivity by 7.4% in year 2 as compared to traditional land leveling. Total irrigation water savings under PLL versus TLL were 12–14% in rice and 10–13% in wheat. PLL improved RW system profitability by US$113 ha −1 (year 1) to $175 ha −1 (year 2). Yields were higher in conventionally transplanted rice followed by direct-drill-seeded rice after ZT. In wheat, yields were higher in ZT when followed by DSR than in the conventional-till (CT) system. RW system productivity under double ZT was equivalent to that of the conventional method. Among different TCE, conventional puddled-transplanted rice-CT wheat required 12–33% more water than other TCE techniques. Compared with CT systems, double ZT consumed 12–20% less water with almost equal system productivity and demonstrated higher water productivity. The CT system had higher bulk density and penetration resistance in 10–15 and 15–20 cm soil layers due to compaction caused by the repeated wet tillage in rice. The steady-state infiltration rate and soil aggregation (>0.25 mm) were higher under permanent beds and double ZT and lower in the CT system. Under CT, soil aggregation was static across seasons, whereas it improved under double no-till and permanent beds. Similarly, mean weight diameter of aggregates was higher under double ZT and permanent beds and increased over time. The study reveals that to sustain the RW system, CPA-based RCTs could be more viable options: however, the long-term effects of these alternative technologies need to be studied under varying agro-ecologies.

Light distribution in wheat population and its effect on leaf photosyntheticrate under raised-bed planting method

利用4个不同基因型小麦(<i>Triticum aestivum</i> L.)品种(大穗型品种“烟辐188”和“淄麦12”、多穗型品种“济麦22”和“济麦20”)对比研究了垄作和传统平作两种栽培方式对小麦群体内部光分布特征及其对不同叶位叶片光合速率的影响。结果表明: 垄作栽培方式显著改善了小麦冠层内光的垂直分布状况, 使冠层内不同垂直高度的光照强度显著高于传统平作, 并显著提高了小麦冠层内不同叶位叶片的光合速率; 垄作栽培能够显著降低多穗型小麦品种冠层温度, 而对大穗型小麦品种作用不明显; 垄作栽培方式能够显著提高多穗型小麦品种归一化植被指数(NDVI), 明显改善小麦生长状况; 垄作栽培方式可显著提高小麦的千粒重, 增加穗粒数, 使小麦的行优势得到充分发挥。垄作栽培方式更适合分蘖成穗率较高、群体相对较大的多穗型品种。

Short term changes in dynamics of C and N in soil when crops are cultivated on permanent raised beds

Densely populated, intensively cropped highland areas in the subtropics are prone to erosion and declining soil fertility, making agriculture unsustainable. Permanent raised bed planting systems, as a form of conservation agriculture, have been developed to reduce production costs while conserving resources and sustaining the environment. In 2004, a new experiment with long term focus was started under rain fed conditions at El Batan (Mexico; 2,240 m a.s.l.; 19.31N, 98.50W; Cumulic Phaeozem), which aims at understanding the effects of (1) tillage (conventionally tilled or permanent raised beds), (2) residue management (retention or removal) and (3) N fertilizer application (0 or 120 kg N/ha) on N availability in a yearly maize/wheat rotation system. Incubation experiments were conducted to establish how the different treatments affect C and N dynamics in the soil. Tillage increases the availability of soil organic matter by soil aggregate disruption, enhancing C and N mineralization. Conventionally tilled raised beds with incorporation of crop residues increased the CO2 production rate. In both tillage systems, retention of maize or wheat residue without N fertilizer application led to N immobilization. In permanent raised beds, however, the immobilization due to residue retention could be compensated by application of N fertilizer, while conventionally tilled raised beds appeared to use the applied N fertilizer less efficiently.

The effect of different tillage and residue management practices on soil characteristics, inorganic N dynamics and emissions of N2O, CO2 and CH4 in the central highlands of Mexico: a laboratory study

Conservation agriculture in its version of permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention increases yields and improves soil characteristics, e.g. aggregate distribution, organic matter content, so it remained to be seen how greenhouse gas emissions and dynamics of C and N might be altered. The objective of this study was to investigate how conservation agriculture with permanent raised beds, tied ridges, i.e. dykes within the furrows to prevent water run-off, and residue retention affected greenhouse gas emissions. A field experiment was started in 1999 comparing permanent and conventionally tilled raised beds with different residue management under rain fed conditions. Soil was characterized and emissions of CH4, N2O and CO2 and dynamics of NH4+, NO2− and NO3− were monitored in a laboratory experiment. The crop and tied ridges had no effect on soil characteristics and dynamics of C and N. Tilled beds reduced the water holding capacity (WHC) 1.1 times and increased conductivity 1.3 times compared to soil under nontilled beds with retention of all crop residues. The WHC, organic C, soil microbial biomass and total N were ≥1.1 larger in soil from nontilled beds where the crop residue was retained compared to where it was removed after only 6 years. The emission of CO2 was 1.2 times and production of NO3− 1.8 times larger in nontilled beds where the crop residue was retained compared to where it was removed. The CO2 emission was 1.2 times and the emission of N2O after 1 day 2.3 times larger in soil under tilled beds compared to nontilled beds with full residue retention, while the increase in concentration of NO3− was 0.05 mg N kg−1 soil in the former and 2.38 in the latter. We found that permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention decreased emissions of N2O and CO2 compared to soil under conventionally tilled raised beds. Production of NO3− is larger in soil with permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention compared to conventionally tilled raised beds.

Aggregation and C and N contents of soil organic matter fractions in a permanent raised-bed planting system in the Highlands of Central Mexico

Permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention is a form of conservation agriculture that has been proposed as an alternative to conven- tional tillage for wheat production systems in the Central Highlands of Mexico. A field experiment comparing permanent and tilled raised beds with different residue management under rainfed condi- tions was started at El Batan (State of Mexico, Mexico) in 1999. The percentage of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full crop residue retention (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates was lower. The percentages of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds with residue retention compared to permanent raised beds with removal of the residue (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates and silt and clay fraction was lower. Cultivation of maize significantly reduced the large macroaggregates, while wheat reduced the silt and clay fraction (average over all systems). Cultivation of maize reduced the C and N content of the free microaggregates compared to soil cultivated with wheat, while removal of plant residue reduced the C and N content of the silt and clay fraction compared to soil where residue was retained. The C and N content of the coarse particulate organic matter (cPOM) and microaggregates within the macro- aggregates was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full residue retention, while C and N content of the cPOM was significantly lower when residue was removed or partially removed compared to the soil where theresiduewasretained.The δ 13 C ‰ signatures of the macroaggregates, microaggregates, the silt and

Sustainability Considerations in Wheat Improvement and Production

This article describes the global wheat mega-environments and consequently need for different types of wheat germplasm. The breeding programs worldwide have targeted yield potential gains as one of their major objectives. The yield gains have been variable, but consistently increasing until the end of the last century. However, in general, there has been a large benefit (estimated between 2 to 6 billion US$ based on year 2000 parity) to the agricultural economy in developing countries due to international and national partnerships in wheat breeding. The production and productivity of wheat in India has begun to show stagnation, primarily due to natural resource base decline. The research results indicate that this can be reversed by practicing zero tillage and timely planting in the Gangetic Plains. The dryland wheat based agriculture is also declining, especially in WANA (West Asia and North Africa). However, the results pertaining to minimum tillage, timely sowing and lentil/vetch rotation with wheat have shown promise to provide high productivity of wheat (up to 4 ton/ha) when the temperature extremes (freezing and very hot) are not common. This article also provides evidence of sustainability and profitability of irrigated agriculture in Sonora, Mexico, provided farmers practice zero tillage, residue management, and raised-bed planting system.

Influence of permanent raised bed planting and residue management on physical and chemical soil quality in rain fed maize/wheat systems

Densely populated, intensively cropped highland areas in the tropics and subtropics are prone to erosion and declining soil fertility, making agriculture unsustainable. Conservation agriculture in its version of permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention has been proposed as an alternative wheat production system for this agro-ecological zone. A five years field experiment comparing permanent and tilled raised beds with different residue management under rainfed conditions was started at El Batan (Mexico) (2,240 m asl; 19.31°N, 98.50°W; Cumulic Phaeozem) in 1999. The objective of this study was to determine the soil quality status after five years of different management practices. The K concentration was 1.65 times and 1.43 times larger in the 0–5 cm and 5–20 cm profiles, respectively, for permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds. The Na concentration showed the opposite trend. Sodicity was highest for conventionally tilled raised beds and for permanent raised beds it increased with decreasing amounts of residue retained on the surface. Permanent raised beds with full residue retention increased soil organic matter content 1.4 times in the 0–5 cm layer compared to conventionally tilled raised beds with straw incorporated and it increased significantly with increasing amounts of residue retained on the soil surface for permanent raised beds. Soil from permanent raised beds with full residue retention had significantly higher mean weight diameter for wet and dry sieving compared to conventionally tilled raised beds. Permanent raised beds with full residue retention had significantly higher aggregate stability compared to those with residue removal. A lower aggregation resulted in a reduction of infiltration. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using these soil physicochemical variables that were significantly influenced by tillage or residue management. The PC1 and PC2 separated the conventionally tilled raised beds from the permanent raised beds and PC3 separated permanent raised beds with at least partial residue retention from permanent raised beds with no residue retention. These clear separations suggest that tillage and residue management have an effect on soil processes. The research indicates that permanent raised bed planting increases the soil quality and can be a sustainable production alternative for the (sub)tropical highlands. Extensive tillage with its associated high costs can be reduced by the use of permanent raised beds while at least partial surface residue retention is needed to insure production sustainability.

Weed management in dry-seeded rice ( Oryza sativa) cultivated in the furrow-irrigated raised-bed planting system

Dry seeding of rice ( Oryza sativa L.) in the furrow-irrigated raised-bed planting system (FIRBS) represents a major shift in the production practices for attaining optimal water productivity in the rice–wheat system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia. Information on weed management in dry-seeded rice in the FIRBS is lacking. Two experiments were conducted for 2 years, with an objective of identifying appropriate, effective, and economical methods of managing: (1) broadleaf weeds only; and (2) a mixed population of both grass and broadleaf weeds in dry-seeded rice cultivated in the FIRBS. The major weeds associated with dry-seeded rice in the FIRBS during both years were Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv., Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd., Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwl, Caesulia axillaris Roxb., Euphorbia hirta L., Lindernia sp., Commelina benghalensis L., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Trianthema portulacastrum L., and Portulaca oleracea L. Triclopyr at 500 g a.i. ha −1, bensulfuron at 60 g a.i. ha –1, ethoxysulfuron at 18 g a.i. ha –1, and 2,4-D (ester) at 500 g a.i. ha –1, all applied at 21 days after seeding (DAS), were equally effective in realizing higher rice grain yields by controlling broadleaf weeds. Among these, ethoxysulfuron at 18 g a.i. ha –1 was found to be least expensive but effective for controlling broadleaf weeds. Effective and economical herbicides identified for managing a mixed population of both grass and broadleaf weeds included fenoxaprop- p-ethyl+ethoxysulfuron at 50+18 g a.i ha –1, applied at 21 DAS, and pendimethalin followed by (fb) chlorimuron+metsulfuron at 1000 fb 4 g a.i. ha −1 applied at 3 fb 21 DAS.

Comparison of conventional, flood irrigated, flat planting with furrow irrigated, raised bed planting for winter wheat in China

China is the most populous nation and largest food producer and consumer in the world. In terms of planted area and output, wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) (including both winter and spring habit wheat) is the number one crop in northern China, and currently almost all irrigated wheat is conventionally planted in narrow spaced rows on the flat and is irrigated by flood irrigation within bordered basins. Conventional flat planting for winter wheat has some disadvantages. The use of flood irrigation can result in a low potential irrigation water use efficiency and inefficient use of nitrogen. It can also cause crusting of the soil surface following irrigation and can contribute to the degradation of some soil properties. In addition, it can result in higher levels of crop lodging. A raised bed-planting system with a number of defined rows (usually two to four rows) planted on top of the bed with furrow irrigation was found to overcome these disadvantages. The benefits of the raised bed-planting system with furrow irrigation compared with conventional flat planting with flood irrigation were found as follows: first, there was a savings in some years of as much as 30% of applied irrigation water combined with enhanced water use efficiency by changing from flood to furrow irrigation; second, the crust problem on the soil surface was eliminated and soil physical status was greatly improved; third, nitrogen use efficiency could be improved by 10% or more because of improved nitrogen placement possibilities; fourth, the microclimate within the field was changed due to the orientation of the wheat plants in rows on the beds with the bed-planting system, which reduced crop lodging and decreased the incidence of some wheat diseases. These advantages, interacting together, were found to improve grain quality and increase grain yield by more than 10%.

Yield, economics and water use efficiency of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) under various irrigation regimes on raised bed planting system

A field experiment was conducted at Kanpur during rabi seasons of 2005-06 and 2006-07 to elucidate the ef- fect of raised bed planting on growth, yield, water use efficiency and economics of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) under various irrigation depths. Results revealed that raised bed planting increased nodulation significantly by 30.0% and nodule dry weight by 44.4% over flat bed planting. Raised bed planting also encouraged compara- tively more root growth than flat bed as evident through higher root: shoot ratio. Branching and podding were sig- nificantly higher in raised bed by 52.1% and 23.6%, respectively. Chickpea recorded maximum grain yield (aver- age 2.24 t/ha), water use efficiency (11.69 kg/ha-mm) and net return (Rs 20,810/ha) under raised bed planting system. Among depths, though 30 and 45 mm irrigation recorded significantly higher nodulation, root growth, branching and podding, the maximum grain yield was recorded with 30 mm irrigation (av. 2.22 t/ha) which was at par with 45 mm but significantly higher than 15 and 60 mm irrigations. Thus, on an average, raised bed planting increased grain yield by 17.3% and saved 37.5 to 50% irrigation requirement in chickpea.

Soybean (Glycine max) growth, productivity and water use under different sowing methods and seeding rates in Punjab

A field experiment was conducted from 2006 to 2008 to study the effect of four sowing methods namely raised bed planting (67.5 cm wide, 2 rows per bed), raised broad bed planting (135 cm wide, 4 rows per bed), ridge-fur- row sowing (60 cm spacing) and flat sowing (45 cm spacing) and three seeding rates i.e. 50, 62.5 and 75 kg/ha in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]. The highest photosynthetically active radiation interception (PARI) and net re- turns were recorded in raised bed planting. The highest seed yields was recorded in raised bed sowing, which was 6.70 and 5.29% higher than ridge-furrow and flat sowing methods, respectively. The highest water productiv- ity was recorded in raised broad bed sowing which was significantly higher than flat sowing and ridge-furrow sow- ing methods but statistically on par with raised bed sowing. Seed rate of 50 kg/ha recorded highest crop growth rate (CGR) and pods per plant whereas the highest PARI was observed with 75 kg/ha seed rate, which was statis- tically on par with 62.5 kg/ha seed rate but significantly higher than 50 kg seed/ha. The soybean productivity and net returns were highest with 62.5 kg/ha seed rate.

Productivity, resource-use efficiency and economics of maize (Zea mays)wheat (Triticum aestivum)greengram (Vigna radiata) cropping system under conservation agriculture in irrigated north-western Indo-Gangetic plains

A field experiment was conducted during 201112 and 201213 in New Delhi, to evaluate conservation agricul- tural practices on crop productivity, profitability and resource-use efficiency of maize (Zea mays L.)wheat [Triti- cum aestivum (L.) emend. Fiori &amp; Paol.] greengram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] cropping system. Four main plots treatments, viz. conventional tillage with flat and raised bed planting (CTF and CTB) and zero tillage with flat and raised bed planting (ZTF and ZTB) were supplemented with 4 subplots treatments, viz. no residue control (CON), wheat residue in maize crop (WR), maize residue in wheat crop (MR) and wheat + maize residue (WMR) in both maize and wheat crops. Each residue was applied at 2.5 t/ha. The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design. Greengram was grown during summer under zero till condition and its residue was retained in all the plots except CON. The results of 2 year pooled data revealed that the system productivity (maize grain-equivalent yield, MGEY) was found comparable among ZTF, ZTB and CTB (13.013.2 t MGEY/ha). The ZTF incurred the least cost ( 73.4 thousand/ha), but fetched significantly higher net returns ( 94.1 thousand/ha) and benefit: cost (1.28) in the cropping system. Irrigation water productivity and energy productivity of the system were significantly higher with ZTB. The WMR increased the total cost by 16.5% in comparison to CON, however, showed the highest crop productivity, profitability and water productivity of the system. The WMR showed the least energy productivity. Overall, zero tillage with residue retention throughout crop cycle was more productive, remunerative and irrigation water-use efficient in the maizewheatgreengram system.

Effect of land configuration and weed management in onion (Allium cepa)

A field experiment was conducted to examine the effect of different planting patterns and weed management practices on weed growth and productivity of onion ( Allium cepa L.) during rabi 2006-07 and 2007-08. The experi- ment was laid out in split-plot design with planting patterns of onion in main-plots (flat and raised bed planting with or without rice straw incorporation) and weed management practices viz., pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha, oxyflourfen @ 0.225 kg/ha, fluchloralin @ 1.125 kg/ha, two hand weedings and control (unweeded) in sub-plots. Weed popu- lation and dry matter accumulation of weeds under different planting patterns and straw management techniques remained unaffected throughout the crop growth period and at uprooting. Yield attributes and bulb yield were not significantly influenced by planting patterns. Population and dry matter accumulation of weeds were significantly reduced with the application of oxyflourfen, pendimethalin and two hand weedings, when compared with fluchloralin and unweeded control during both years of investigation. Application of oxyflourfen gave the highest bulb yield, which was at par with pendimethalin and two hand weedings. These treatments gave significantly more bulb yield than fluchloralin and unweeded control. The highest net returns obtained with flat bed sowing with rice straw incorporation. Among the different weed control treatments, the maximum net returns of 185.6103/ha with BCR 7.63 registered with oxyflourfen. Unweeded control treatment recorded the lowest net returns of 94.3103/ ha with BCR 4.10.

Effect of land configuration and soil conditioners on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa)

A field experiment was carried out for two consecutive years (2007-08 and 2008-09) to study the effect of land configuration and soil conditioners on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) on clayey soil of Navsari (Gujarat). Four land configurations viz., ridge and furrow method, raised bed (50 cm width) with 2 rows, raised bed (75 cm width ) with 3 rows and raised bed (120 cm width) with 4 rows and three soil conditioners viz., bio-compost @ 12.5 t/ha, bio-compost @ 25 t/ha and biocompost @ 12.5 t/ha + gypsum @ 2 t/ha were evaluated. Raised bed planting had favourable effect on growth and yield of turmeric as compared to ridge and furrow planting. Raised bed with either 3 or 4 rows were equally effective in improving plant growth of turmeric. However, raised bed with 3 rows land configuration recorded significantly higher fresh rhizome yield (21.78 t/ha), the yield advantage being 26.6, 16.4 and 13.9% over ridge and furrow method, raised bed with 4 rows and raised bed with 2 rows, respec- tively. Application of biocompost @ 25 t/ha recorded significantly the highest rhizome yield (20.90 t/ha) and the magnitude of response was to the tune of 17.8 and 10.2% as compared to bio-compost @ 12.5 t/ha and bio-com- post @ 12.5 t/ha + gypsum @ 2 t/ha, respectively. Interaction effect between land configuration and soil condi- tioner was found significant and the combination involving raised bed with 3 rows and biocompost @ 25 t/ha re- corded the maximum fresh rhizome yield (25.38 t/ha). These treatments also accrued the maximum net realization and B:C ratio.

Performance of baby corn (Zea mays) under different fertility levels and planting methods and its residual effect on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

A field trial was conducted at Varanasi during 201011 and 201112, to study the effect of fertility levels and planting methods on growth, yield, nutrient uptake and economics of baby corn (Zea mays L.) and its residual bio- mass incorporation effect on sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]. The experiment was carried out in a spilt- plot design with 4 replications. The main plots were allocated with fertility levels F (no fertilizer as control), F (75, 0 1 19.64, 37.35, 20 and 5), F (150, 39.28, 74.71, 40 and 10) and F (225, 46.76, 112.06, 60 and 15) kg/ha of N, P, K, 2 3 S and Zn and sub-plots with combinations of 2 planting methods (flat bed and raised bed) and 2 varieties viz; (Pro-Agro 4212 and Sweet Corn Sugar 75). Application of 225, 46.76, 112.06, 60 and 15 kg/ha of N, P, K, S and Zn fertility level significantly increased plant growth, yield, yield attributes and nutrient removal over rest of the treatments. Overall, this particular fertility level registered 55.0% more yield (without husk) than control. Among the sub-plot treatments raised bed planting recorded the highest plant height, leaf-area Index, dry-matter production, nutrient removal and registered 12.5% more baby corn yield (without husk) than flat bed, while Pro-Agro 4212 also recorded the same and registered 18.8% more baby corn yield (without husk) than Sweet Corn Sugar 75. Further, 225, 46.76, 112.06, 60 and 15 kg/ha fertility levels applied to previous crop increased the sorghum grain yield by (33.3%) over the control.