Rainwater Availability Research Articles

Analysis of Rainwater Availability and Water Requirements in the Amarasi District Area Kupang Regency

The hydrological conditions of the Amarasi District, Kupang Regency have 3-4 wet months and 8-9 dry months according to Oldeman’s classification. Annual rainfall in the last ten years shows the lowest rainfall was 1,461mm and the highest was 2,688mm, the average annual rainfall was 1,859mm. The Amarasi region is included in zones D and E of the Oldeman climate classification. The practice of utilizing limited water resources by planting fodder crops in the form of legumes and grasses as well as food crops in integrated dry land agriculture has been carried out by the Amarasi community. This research examines the availability and demand for domestic, agricultural and livestock water and will produce an availability index as the carrying capacity of regional water availability. The method used to calculate the availability of water originating from rain is runoff analysis based on weighted coefficients for each land use, then analyzed in a monthly series and compared with the level of water demand for each use. Domestic water needs, livestock drinking and irrigation follow SNI 19-6728.1.2002. Then the analysis results are interpreted with tables and time series graphs. The research results show the following time series of water availability: January: 44,626,635.13m3; February: 31,210,646.01m3; March : 20,050,098.53m3; April: 11,726,074.47m3; May : 3,023,180.66m3; June: 1,747,689.52m3; July : 973,284.18m3; August : 168,880.36m3; September: 1,026,614.82m3. October 2,846,522.91m3; November 10,713,903.37m3; and December: 26,871,976.23m3. The amount of water demand in the time series is as follows: January: 1,929,491.70m3; February: 1,391,817.98m3; March: 1,697,543.42m3; April: 781,567.95m3; May : 883,736.22m3; June: 755,911.95m3; July : 284,777.42m3; August : 384,569.42m3; September: 387,871.95m3. October 355,448.02m3; November 3,242,283.15m3; and December: 2,631,159.26m3. Water availability index: January: 4.32 (good), February: 4.46 (good), March: 8.47 (good), April: 6.67 (good), May: 29.23 (slight critical), June: 43.25 (mild critical), July: 29.26 (mild critical), August: 227.27 (bad/severe critical), September: 37.78 (mild critical), October 12.49 (good), November: 30.26 (mild critical) and December 9.79 (good).

Modelling seasonal household variation in harvested rainwater availability: a case study in Siaya County, Kenya

Rainwater harvesting reliability, the proportion of days annually when rainwater demand is fully met, is challenging to estimate from cross-sectional household surveys that underpin international monitoring. This study investigated the use of a modelling approach that integrates household surveys with gridded precipitation data to evaluate rainwater harvesting reliability, using two local-scale household surveys in rural Siaya County, Kenya as an illustrative case study. We interviewed 234 households, administering a standard questionnaire that also identified the source of household stored drinking water. Logistic mixed effects models estimated stored rainwater availability from household and climatological variables, with random effects accounting for unobserved heterogeneity. Household rainwater availability was significantly associated with seasonality, storage capacity, and access to alternative improved water sources. Most households (95.1%) that consumed rainwater faced insufficient supply of rainwater available for potable needs throughout the year, with intermittencies during the short rains for most households with alternative improved sources. Although not significant, stored rainwater lasts longer for households whose only improved water source was rainwater (301.8 ± 40.2 days) compared to those having multiple improved sources (144.4 ± 63.7 days). Such modelling analysis could enable rainwater harvesting reliability estimation, and thereby national/international monitoring and targeted follow-up fieldwork to support rainwater harvesting.

Optimizing the Control of Decentralized Rainwater Harvesting Systems for Reducing Urban Drainage Flows

The practice of rainwater harvesting (RWH) has been studied extensively in recent years, as it has the potential to alleviate some of the increasing stress on urban water distribution systems and drainage networks. Within the field, an approach of real-time control of rainwater storage is emerging as a method to improve the ability of RWH systems to reduce runoff and urban drainage flows. As applying real-time control on RWH tanks means releasing water that could be used for supply, applying controlled-release policies often hinders the RWH system’s ability to supply water. The suggested study presents an approach that has the potential to improve the capability of a distributed network of RWH systems to mitigate peak drainage flows while substantially reducing the impact on harvested rainwater availability. The suggested method uses a genetic algorithm to generate release policies, which are tailored for any given rain event and initial conditions. The algorithm utilizes the modeled drainage system’s response to a given rainfall pattern and manages to substantially reduce peak drainage flows with little impact on available rainwater when compared to the conventional no-release alternative and other active release methods.

Climate-Induced Perspective Variations in Irrigation Schedules and Design Water Requirements for the Rice–Wheat System

Conceptualizing the implications of climate change for crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and subsequent net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is critical to sustaining Pakistan’s agriculture and food security. In this article, future ETc, NIWR, and design water requirements (DWR) were projected for the rice–wheat system of Punjab, Pakistan. Consistently increasing temperatures signify an impending hotter transition in the future thermal regime, accompanied by a substantial increase in monsoon rainfall. Future climate warming accelerated ETc and NIWR, which were compensated by 2–5 and 1–2 additional irrigations during the rice and wheat seasons, respectively. Future rice and wheat required 13–18 and 2–5 irrigations per season, respectively. Effective rainfall increments did not compensate for the warming-driven higher ETc and NIWR because of uneven and erratic rainfall distribution. Rainfall occurrence and the duration of peak irrigation demand were mismatched, resulting in surplus rainwater availability during the future rice season. The results suggest that DWR for 5- and 10-year return period droughts during the baseline period (965 and 1000 mm, respectively) should be revised to accommodate the additional 100–200 mm of irrigation water per season; otherwise, the study area will face an acute water shortage in the future.

Rainwater Harvesting for Water Security in Campus (case study Engineering Faculty in University of Pancasila)

Global climate change is a worldwide issue affecting rain and groundwater supplies. To realize the SDGs’ 6th goal regarding clean water and proper sanitation, Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) is one solution for pure water requirements and useless groundwater. RWH, which is equipped with infiltration wells, can overcome water scarcity during the dry season and reduce flooding in the rainy season. This research was conducted to harvest rainwater that falls on the roof into the reservoir to the ground, so it is necessary to calculate the rainwater availability and water demand to design RWH building plan. This research was conducted at the Faculty of Engineering, Pancasila University, which uses groundwater for essential water requirements. Two RWH reservoirs are planned in different locations, with the dimensions of the RWH reservoir are 4 m (length) x 3.5 m (width) x 3 m (height). Based on the flood discharge from the roof of 84 m3, the amount of water needed is 19.4 m3. For that, it is necessary to be equipped with 4 infiltration wells with a diameter of about 1.5 m and a height of 3 m to store groundwater around 6.402 m3. RWH application can also be applied to campus that use groundwater to reduce groundwater use.

Reducing sugarcane irrigation demand through planting date adjustment in Alagoas State, Brazil

ABSTRACT Sugarcane is both an important crop for the Brazilian Northeast economy, which faces severe water scarcity, and a water-intensive crop. Thus, it is important to develop irrigation strategies to reduce irrigation water demand in the region. This study aims to determine the sugarcane planting date that results in the maximum rainwater availability to the crop in the growing cycle. The crop effective precipitation was estimated from a soil water balance performed during three planting cycles of sugarcane, cultivar ‘RB 92579’. The crop was planted under subsurface drip irrigation in five months: October, November, December, January, and February, corresponding to the dry season period of the region. The experiment was conducted at the Açúcar e Álcool Coruripe Mill, located in the Coruripe municipality, State of Alagoas, Brazil, during the years 2012 to 2016. For all planting dates and growing cycles studied, the average effective rainy precipitation was equal to 30% of the total rainfall under irrigated conditions and 54.5% without considering the irrigation component in the soil water balance. November was the planting date that resulted in the minimum irrigation depth for the sugarcane growing cycle, with the potential irrigation water saving ranging from 5 to 129 mm.

Analysis of climate change effects on crop water availability for paddy, wheat and berseem

Climate change has been a serious concern in the 21st century and mitigation strategies on its effects are less researched. The increase in temperature and changes in rainfall have forced researchers to ponder over reducing the wastage of fresh water. This paper deals with the rain water availability and the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) changes occurring and projected to occur over a time period of fifty years. Three major crops, paddy, wheat and berseem fodder were considered for three locations. Observed data and forecasted data for precipitation and temperature was obtained from India Meteorological Department and Can Esm2 model respectively. The Mann–Kendall (MK) test and the Thiel-Sen's Slope estimator (TSS) test were applied on the crop stage wise aggregated rain water available and the ETc to analyze the effects of climate change. In addition to the above study, the historical and projected means of crop period wise aggregated effective rainfall, total net irrigation requirement and total crop water requirement for a range of dates of sowing/transplanting for the above mentioned crops and locations were analyzed. It was seen by the analysis that the rainwater availability is seen to decrease and the temperatures increase with a delay in the sowing dates in the future scenarios causing an increase in the crop water requirements. Suitable shifting of the crop sowing or transplanting dates is seen to aid to better exploit the available rainwater and minimize the irrigation application.

Groundwater enhances above‐ground growth in mangroves

Abstract Groundwater flow through coastal wetlands plays an important role in the maintenance of productivity of intertidal ecosystems. Groundwater can reduce salinity and increase nutrient availability which can enhance plant growth and alter plant biomass allocation patterns. Here, we used stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen to assess how groundwater influences below‐ground and above‐ground growth in the widespread mangrove species Avicennia marina. We found source water within tree stems varied seasonally, with non‐saline water use higher in the wet season when rainwater availability was highest compared to the dry season. Stems with higher proportional contribution of non‐saline water had increased above‐ground growth but no effect on below‐ground growth. Below‐ground growth was however influenced by nutrient availability across the intertidal zone which was higher in the high‐ compared to the low‐intertidal zone. Synthesis. This study shows that mangroves use non‐saline groundwater and rainwater when available rather than saline water sources. Groundwater flows into the intertidal stimulates organic matter accumulation in above‐ground biomass suggesting the availability of non‐saline water sources, such as groundwater and rainfall, are important for the growth and productivity of mangrove forests.

Classification and seasonal distribution of rain types based on surface and radar observations over a tropical coastal station

An attempt has been made to classify stratiform and convective rain using an impact type disdrometer at a tropical coastal site based on (Testud et al., 2001) method. Using this classification scheme, all rain events were analysed and computed their duration (minutes) and accumulated water (mm) in convective, stratiform, transition and mixed rain types. For the first time, in this paper an atmospheric electric field mill was used for rain type classification. The classification results were confirmed with disdrometer, Micro Rain Radar (MRR), and atmospheric electric field mill (EFM) observations. In convective rain type, non-bright band and high electric field were correspondingly observed in MRR and EFM records. Whereas bright band and shallow electric fields were detected during stratiform rain in the above observations of instruments. Other supporting evidences were observed from disdrometer also in corresponding rain types. Seasonal variations in rain duration and associated accumulated water were investigated in the four seasons (winter, pre-monsoon, summer monsoon and post-monsoon) for different rain types. General and mixed rain events were identified depending on the presence of stratiform or convective type in them. Percentage of rain duration and events for the study period were analysed with respect to (a) mean monthly rain water availability and (b) the intensity pattern in the total rainfall encountered in each month. Among the four seasons, summer monsoon received maximum rainfall followed by post-monsoon. A bimodal variation in the rainfall with a primary peak in June and secondary peak in October was observed in the annual cycle. Rainfall was intense during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons and less intense during the summer monsoon season. Also, shorter duration rain events were repeated in summer monsoon and fewer rain events of longer duration are resulted during pre- and post-monsoon seasons. In this duration, mixed rain accounts second higher in all the seasons. It was more evident in summer monsoon and least in post-monsoon. Rainfall contribution from convective rain was dominant in all the seasons except in winter. In summer monsoon, mixed and transition rain types have contributed much water among the four seasons. In mixed and transition rain types, mixed rain contributed more in duration and transition contributed more to water. From day-night variation analysis, it was observed that there was day-high and night-low in pre-monsoon and its reversal in post-monsoon season, with almost same occurrence during the summer monsoon. In the case of number of rain events, general (mixed) events were less (more) during the summer monsoon. From statistical analyses, an increase was observed in the duration of rain events from winter to post-monsoon. About 20% of duration was aggregated by longer duration events in all the seasons except during the winter.

Study on rhizobium interaction with osmoprotectant rhizobacteria for improving mung bean yield

Gunungkidul has calcareous soil with limitations including calcareous stone, mostly hilly terrain, and shallow cultivated layer. Furthermore, nowadays we face the disadvantages climates such as long dry seasons, a short rainy season and high temperatures caused by climate change. Climate change leads to irregular rainwater availability for microbes and crops. Research in this field is currently needed as climate change affected directly on crop production, while we need to find the strategy to keep high productivity of the plant. This research aimed to determine the ability of osmoprotectant rhizobacteria and rhizobium to support mung bean yield. Osmoprotectant rhizobacteria were isolated and screened from the calcareous soil in Gunungkidul with disadvantageous climates such as a long dry season, a short rainy season and high temperature. This research was arranged in Completely Randomized Design. The result showed that osmoprotectant rhizobacteria isolate of strain Al24-k and Ver5-k can produce 9.6306 mg g−1 cell of glycine betaine in a soil density 1.7667 x 107 CFU g−1 and 11.4870 mg g−1 cell of glycine betaine in a soil density 1.9667 x 107 CFU g−1. Inoculation of isolates osmoprotectant rhizobacteria can support mung bean yield. Osmoprotectant rhizobacteria isolate did not effect rhizobium in mung bean rhizosphere.

Study on osmoprotectant rhizobacteria to improve mung bean growth under drought stress

Climate change leads to irregular rainwater availability for crops and thus enhances drought stress. Furthermore, nowadays we face climate disadvantages such as long dry season, short rainy season and high air temperature caused by climate change. This research aimed at studying the ability of osmoprotectant rhizobacteria isolates to support mung bean growth under drought stress. The rhizobacteria were isolated from mung bean’s rhizosphere. The results showed that isolates of strain Al24-k and Ver5-k produced glycine betaine 9.6306 mg g−1 cell, 1.7667 x 107 CFU g−1 soil and 11.4870 mg g”1 cell, 1.9667 x 107 CFU g−1 soil. The isolated rhizobacteria from mung bean’s rhizosphere under field capacity of soil moisture produced glycine betaine 6.8000 mg g−1 cell, 1.2556 x 107 CFU g−1 soil. Under 75% field capacity of soil moisture, isolates produced glycine betaine of 6.4059 mg g−1 cell, 1.3111 x 107 CFU g−1 soil, while under 50% from field capacity, the isolates produced glycine betaine of 7.4108 mg g−1 cell, 1.6667 x 107 CFU g−1 soil. The osmoprotectant rhizobacteria improved the resilience of mung bean to drought stress.

Urban Principle of Water Sensitive Design in Kampung Kamboja at Pontianak City

This study will define the design principles of settlement area banks of the Kapuas Pontianak to approach the concept of water sensitive urban design (WSUD) in densely populated residential areas. Using a case study of a region densely located on the banks of the river with engineering literature to formulate the aspects taken into consideration and the components are arranged in the design, analysis descriptive paradigm rationalistic to identify the characteristics of residential areas riverbank with consideration of elements WSUD and formulate design principles residential area that is sensitive to water. This research is important to do because of problems related to the water management system in the settlement bank of the river in the city of Pontianak do not maximize. So that the primacy of this study contains several objectives to be achieved is to identify the characteristics of the settlement area riverbanks under consideration aspects areas design that is sensitive to water and principle areas design that will formulate the structure of the existing problems related to the needs of the community infrastructure facilities infrastructure neighborhoods and formulate and create guidelines for appropriate technology for integrated water management systems in the residential area of the riverbank and engineering design for the settlements are sensitive to water (WSUD). The final aim of the study is expected to achieve water management systems in residential areas by utilizing the abundant rainwater availability by using LID (Low Impact Development) through the concept of urban design that sensitive water

Probability of dry/wet spell and rainwater availability at Dapoli for rice crop planning

Probability of dry/wet spell and rainwater availability at Dapoli for rice crop planning

Rainwater Availability Assessment for Tourism Development: A Case Study of Turtle Islands Park, Sabah

This study mainly focused on the rainwater availability assessment in Turtle Islands Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Consisting of three small islands, this marine park is home to two endangered turtle species – Green and Hawkbills turtles. This special feature of the islands attracts tourist around the world, thus increasing the demand of freshwater supply for tourism development in the marine park. However, due to the shortage of freshwater from the ground due to salinity intrusion, rainwater is seen to be an alternative in fulfilling the freshwater demand. To evaluate the source of freshwater in these islands, information is obtained from the main users of the water source, which are the Sabah Park officers, the approved tour operator on the islands and the security forces. The rainwater tanks available on the islands are calculated to assess the storing capacity of rainwater. The water demand was estimated by multiplying the number of visitors with the average water usage per visitor. With the existing water tanks, this study found that the Turtle Islands Park has the ability to store 414 m3 of rainwater in Selingaan island, 3.2 m3 in Gulisaan island, and 102.1 m3 in Bakkungan Kechil island. However, the monthly water demand of each island exceeds the existing storage tanks, hence it is proposed that the number of rainwater tanks be increased to harvest as much rainfall as possible for the use of the islands’ inhabitants.

A water balance approach to assess rainwater availability potential in urban areas: the case of Beijing, China

Rainwater is an underutilized water resource that has become more important in recent years; due to severe water logging and water shortage in cities. The evaluation of rainwater harvesting potential is of fundamental importance in planning rainwater harvesting systems and management policies. In this study, we used minute-interval rainfall data and the water mass balance method coupling urban hydrological processes to assess the annual rainwater availability potential (RAP) of different underlying surfaces in the urban areas of Beijing (inside the 5th Ring Road). The estimated total RAP was 154.49 million m3 in 2013. About 53% of rainwater could be effectively harvested for use, among which the rooftops had the highest harvesting ratio of 70%, and contributed about half of the total RAP. Indirect use of rainwater can be achieved through infiltration facilities, of which concave green land construction and porous brick pavement can increase the amount of rainfall that infiltrates into the soil by 18.89% and 55.69%, respectively. Rainwater harvesting and utilization could serve as a significant water source for the urban areas in Beijing.

Components and structures of the pillars of sustainability

Abstract The focus of this Special Volume (SV) of the Journal of Cleaner Production is “Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environmental Systems”. It is of interest to practitioners in various branches of industry including the energy and water & wastewater sectors and environmental services, governmental policy makers, researchers, educators and the general public. The purpose of this SV is to increase public awareness of key issues of sustainable development and to stimulate exchange of research results, practical experience and new ideas among actors involved in investigating, planning and implementing sustainable development, regarding energy, transport, water, environment and production systems. The SV is focused upon four main fields that are of strategic importance to the sustainable development: energy resources and energy management, water management and wastewater treatment, environmental engineering and management, and promotion of sustainability concepts. The systems under consideration are differentiated in scale, ranging from countries or groups of countries, through regions or branches of industry, municipalities or industrial plants, down to single processes or equipment pieces. Examples of on-going research including case studies are presented along with examples of innovative practical solutions. In the energy field, examples are presented of the development and applications of energy systems analysis, planning and design methods and tools, which can be used to analyse the coherency of the whole systems and to augment the creation of sustainable energy policies and action plans on a large scale, as well as small-scale systems for efficient energy management. Regarding water issues, water management in water stressed regions is discussed indicating the usefulness of advanced mathematical models that take system dynamics and the stochastic nature of rainwater availability as planning tools, and LCA-based methods for assessing the diverse water supply alternatives within a dry region. In the field of environmental engineering and management, large-scale systems for solid waste collection, management and recovery are analysed, and the formation of air pollutants in industrial sources and diesel engines is studied by simulation. Finally, sustainable use of biomass resources and the role of sustainability thinking in the investment planning and management are addressed. In each of the four fields, strategically important challenges for future research are identified including the use of advanced mathematical models and multi-criteria analysis for the optimisation, from the sustainability point of view, of the systems for energy and water supply and management, solid waste management and the utilisation of biomass resources.

Plugrisost: a model for design, economic cost and environmental analysis of rainwater harvesting in urban systems

In the context of transition to sustainability, one of the main challenges facing societies today is the supply of water. By integrating different methodological tools and studies we developed the innovative software program Plugrisost® (rainwater, greys and sustainability), a simulation model, that facilitates the economic evaluation and the potential environmental impact of alternative water supplies (rainwater harvesting [RWH] and greywater systems) at different scales of urban planning. This modelling tool contributes to urban water planning for smart cities development. Plugrisost® analyses the optimal design variables, cost and environmental performance of RWH and greywater systems, using tap water production as a reference system for comparison. The use of economic and environmental indicators can make the optimal size of a rainwater tank more restrictive when it is compared to the results regarding the satisfaction of the demand for rainwater. Economic and environmental analysis can help avoid oversizing tanks for rainwater and thus obtain greater benefits. Plugrisost includes estimated cost and Global Warming Potential, as well as other life cycle impact indicators for this purpose. A case study analyzing the implementation of a RWH system in a single-family house in Aveiro, Portugal is included, showing the importance of rainwater availability and demand for the successful operation of simulated systems.

Optimal sizing of storage tanks for domestic rainwater harvesting in Sicily

In this paper, a dimensionless methodology for the optimal design of domestic rainwater harvesting systems (DRWH) is presented.The methodology is based on the results of daily water balance simulations carried out for 17 rainfall gauging stations in Sicily (Italy).A novel dimensionless parameter to describe the intra-annual rainfall patterns is introduced and easy-to-use regional regressive models are developed to estimate water savings and overflows from harvesting systems in the region.A minimum-cost-based approach together with obtained regressive models is used to evaluate the optimal DRWH tank size. Results of the approach point out that the economical convenience of large tanks decreases as rainwater availability decreases.

Assessment of Rainwater Availability by Building Type and Water Use Through GIS-based Scenario Analysis

Scenario analysis of rainwater harvesting and utilization (RWHU) was performed considering various non-potable water uses in different building types over a year. Six building types were identified in the study area using GIS data: residential houses, offices, commercial buildings, restaurants, public buildings, and “others”. Rainwater storage capacity was considered as 30 mm rainwater depth. Water demand for each building type was calculated as the sum of the individual water uses for toilet flushing, air conditioning, garden irrigation, and cleaning defined in this study as “miscellaneous usages”. To incorporate water quality considerations, rainwater with suspended solids level of less than 2 mg l−1 was used as the quality criterion. The RWHU scenario was compared with other storage and water use scenarios. This study quantified the rainwater availability throughout a year and its seasonal variation and consumption in each building type. The analysis clarified the effectiveness of rainwater utilization for supplementing existing water resources.

Spatio-temporal stochastic resonance induces patterns in wetland vegetation dynamics

Water availability is a major environmental driver affecting riparian and wetland vegetation. The interaction between water table fluctuations and vegetation in a stochastic environment contributes to the complexity of the dynamics of these ecosystems. We investigate the possible emergence of spatial patterns induced by spatio-temporal stochastic resonance in a simple model of groundwater-dependent ecosystems. These spatio-temporal dynamics are driven by the combined effect of three components: (i) an additive white Gaussian noise, accounting for external random disturbances such as fires or fluctuations in rain water availability, (ii) a weak periodic modulation in time, describing hydrological drivers such as seasonal fluctuations of water table depth, and (iii) a spatial coupling term, which takes into account the ability of vegetation to spread and colonize other parts of the landscape. A suitable cooperation between these three terms is able to give rise to ordered structures which show spatial and temporal coherence, and are statistically steady in time.