Rail Car Research Articles

Half-life time of ozone as a function of air conditions and movement

Stored grain products, such as corn, can harbor multiple microorganisms, including fungi such as Aspergillus species that produce toxins harmful to both humans and animals. In previous studies, we have demonstrated that ozone-treatment can significantly reduce the level of viable microorganisms on the surface of corn kernels. Ozone is a strong oxidizing agent, which is used in a growing number of industrial applications to control harmful microbes and volatiles. To achieve this goal, a better understanding of the properties of ozone is needed, especially with respect to the half-life of ozone and time/concentration criteria to reduce microbes on corn. The focus of this project was to determine the half-life time of ozone in air as a function of air speed (0 to 370 m 3 /h), temperature (4 to 40°C) and relative humidity (0 to 80%) inside the cylinder. Half-Life Time (HLT) averaged ~1500 minutes in still air at room temperature (24°C) and zero humidity, which was substantially longer than previosly published data (i.e., 30-40 minutes). As air speed, temperature and humidity increased, HLT decreased to ~40, 800 and 450 minutes, respectively. The results suggest that ozonation will be more effective in still air at low temperature and humidity (e.g., headspace ozonation of rail cars in the early spring) than at high flow rates of ozonated air at high temperature and humidity (e.g., grain storage silo in the middle of summer). Keywords : Ozone, Ozone concentration, Half-life time, Treatment

Legends of Production and Operation

During the 2009 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition in October, JPT honored eight industry pioneers of production and operations for their outstanding contributions. As 2009 SPE technical director for Production and Operations, I was honored to host the luncheon and present awards to the attending recipients. Satish Pai, vice president of Worldwide Operations with Schlumberger, spoke on behalf of his company, which made substantial contributions to the event. Production and operations is known as the backbone of the E&P industry. Simply put, it pays the bills. It involves complex mixtures of ?uids and compounds, utilizes energy to extract more energy products for everyone's use, and frequently also produces unwanted byproducts. A concise history of production and operations helps bring its advances into perspective: In the storage and transportation area, it began as dikes and ponds for storage, and barrels loaded onto wagons or rail cars. It progressed into storage tanks and transportation by trucks. It has since evolved into the use of pipelines. Measurement has gone from the strapping of tanks to meters, lease automatic custody-transfer units, and, most recently, to intricate chemical ?ngerprint and compositional measurements with physical attribute identi?cation. While much early production ?owed naturally, more advanced means of arti?cial lift have become necessary to extract ?uids with increasing ef?ciency. Stimulation methods have gone from bullet perforation, through the use of nitroglycerin, to acid and other chemical means. It now includes various forms of hydraulic fracturing, gravel packs, and the like. The latest means are taking advantage of more sophisticated ?uids and proppant materials, as well as more precise measurement and placement methods. It includes development and utilization of secondary and tertiary means of recovering hydrocarbons, including water?ooding, steam injection, chemical ?oods, surfactant ?oods, and microbial injection, to name a few techniques. There is no doubt that advances in these methods have greatly improved the pro?tability of many a ?rm. As the costs of power and scarcity of labor continue their rise, production and operations personnel have used their innovative senses to stay ahead of the curve. New techniques and a "can do" attitude have resulted in many creative ideas, turning into items that the industry now simply cannot do without. The legends, and countless others like them, are quite special. They may be known as petroleum engineers. However, much like the makeup of SPE, there may be a little mechanical, chemical, electrical, civil, or industrial engineer in them, too, as well as an understanding of geosciences, operations management, and economics. The JPT Legends of Production and Operations program recognized remarkable achievements and eight extraordinary people—people who deserve our gratitude for making our jobs easier and everyone's life better through their efforts to improve productivity. Our hats are collectively off to you.

A new multi-objective optimization formulation for rail-car fleet sizing problems

With potential application to a variety of industries, fleet sizing problems present a prevalent and significant challenge for engineers and managers. This is especially true of applications involving rail cars, where origins and destinations have capacity restrictions. This paper presents a new multi-objective optimization formulation, solution method, and analysis for multi-periodic fleet sizing problems of various sizes. Profit and quality (minimal unmet demands) represent conflicting objectives and are maximized simultaneously. The Pareto optimal set is depicted and is used for trade-off analysis. The solution involves the optimal fleet size as well as the optimal rail-car allocation strategy. The proposed approach is applied to an example problem and is shown to be successful, ultimately providing a new managerial tool for planning and analyzing rail-car fleets more effectively.

Modeling the effects of pelleting on the logistics of distillers grains shipping

The energy security needs of energy importing nations continue to escalate. It is clear that biofuels can help meet some of the increasing need for energy. Theoretically, these can be produced from a variety of biological materials, including agricultural residues (such as corn stover and wheat straw), perennial grasses, legumes, algae, and other biological materials. Currently, however, the most heavily utilized material is corn starch. Industrial fuel ethanol production in the US primarily uses corn, because it is readily converted into fuel at a relatively low cost compared to other biomass sources. The production of corn-based ethanol in the US is dramatically increasing. As the industry continues to grow, the amount of byproducts and coproducts also increases. At the moment, the nonfermentable residues (which are dried and sold as distillers dried grains with solubles – DDGS) are utilized only as livestock feed. The sale of coproducts provides ethanol processors with a substantial revenue source and significantly increases the profitability of the production process. Even though these materials are used to feed animals in local markets, as the size and scope of the industry continues to grow, the need to ship large quantities of coproducts grows as well. This includes both domestic as well as international transportation. Value-added processing options offer the potential to increase the sustainability of each ethanol plant, and thus the industry overall. However, implementation of new technologies will be dependent upon how their costs interact with current processing costs and the logistics of coproduct deliveries. The objective of this study was to examine some of these issues by developing a computer model to determine potential cost ramifications of using various alternative technologies during ethanol processing. This paper focuses specifically on adding a densification unit operation (i.e., pelleting) to produce value-added DDGS at a fuel ethanol manufacturing plant. We have examined the economic implications of pelleting DDGS for varying DDGS production rates (100–1000 tons/d) and pelleting rates (0–100%), for a series of DDGS sales prices ($50–$200/ton). As the proportion of pelleting increases, the cost of transporting DDGS to distant markets drastically declines, because the rail cars can be filled to capacity. For example, at a DDGS sales price of $50/ton, 100% pelleting will reduce shipping costs (both direct and indirect) by 89% compared to shipping the DDGS in bulk form (i.e., no pelleting), whereas at a DDGS sales price of $200/ton, it will reduce costs by over 96%. It is clear that the sustainability of the ethanol industry can be improved by implementing pelleting technology for the coproducts, especially at those plants that ship their DDGS via rail.

Solving a multi periodic stochastic model of the rail–car fleet sizing by two-stage optimization formulation

We propose a formulation and solution procedure for optimizing the fleet size and freight car allocation under uncertainty demands. There are important interactions between decisions on sizing a rail–car fleet and utilizing that fleet. Consequently, the optimum use of empty rail–cars for demands response in the length of the time periods one of advantages the proposed model. The model also provides rail network information such as yard capacity, unmet demands, and number of loaded and empty rail–car at any given time and location. Consequently, the model helping managers or decision makers of any train company for planning and decision making. We propose two-stage solution procedure for solve rail–car fleet sizing problem. Numerical examples are given to illustrate the model and solution methodology.

Rapid ID Technology (RIDT) in Plants: High-Speed DNA Fingerprinting in Grain Seeds for the Identification, Segregation, Purity, and Traceability of Varieties Using Labautomation Robotics

A rapid and inexpensive DNA diagnostic platform for fingerprinting Cdn. registered, wheat varieties has been developed. Two current, real-time applications being used in Canada include the determination of purity (% contamination) of grain shipments in rail cars and the monitoring of field plots that represent a midge varietal blend. The quantification of a sample is accomplished by fingerprinting single seeds and a sample having a mixture of varieties can be assayed. The Rapid ID Technology (RIDT) platform enables high-speed, high-throughput, robotic labautomation and low-cost single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-DNA fingerprinting in wheat. The inexpensive seed DNA extraction method, rapid PCR amplification, and miniaturization of the Invader assay for SNP scoring are all paramount for fingerprinting millions of single seeds per year in numerous rail cars/field plots at a low cost. The cost factor is the dominant concern in any fingerprinting program and the total cost for consumables for a single marker tested is estimated at less than $0.60 per seed. The RIDT platform can also segregate closely related cultivars, an important characteristic since many varieties have a common genetic background. The results “from seed to fingerprint data” at a central lab can then be transferred electronically to any location using a laboratory information management system.

Prevention and management of avian influenza outbreaks: experiences from the United States of America

The epidemiology and control of avian influenza (AI) are complex. The virus is transported in nature by the activities of wild birds and in commercial poultry by the activities of people. In general, all the outbreaks of AI in the United States of America (U.S.A.) have involved AI virus spread by the movement of poultry and manure and objects contaminated by poultry and manure, butthe specific cause of spread has been different for most outbreaks. The 1924 highly pathogenic AI (HPAI) outbreak was spread halfway across the U.S.A. by contaminated rail cars and poultry crates; the 1983 HPAI outbreak was spread by the movement of people between farms and transport of live and dead poultry, including depopulation efforts; whereas low pathogenicity AI (LPAI) outbreaks in different states were spread by people and equipment, partial flock removal, transport of spent hens and/or manure, and transport of dead birds for rendering. There is a dichotomy surrounding AI control methods in the USA. Large LPAI outbreaks have mainly affected turkeys in the western part of the country and have been controlled by vaccination and controlled marketing-strategies developed prior to the 1983 HPAI outbreak. By contrast, in the eastern part of the country, the AI control strategy has been modelled on the successful stamping-out programme that was used during the HPAI outbreak in 1983. The author presents a summary of the costs and control strategies in table form.

Anticorrosive coatings: a review

The main objective of this review is to describe some of the important topics related to the use of marine and protective coatings for anticorrosive purposes. In this context, “protective” refers to coatings for containers, offshore constructions, wind turbines, storage tanks, bridges, rail cars, and petrochemical plants while “marine” refers to coatings for ballast tanks, cargo holds and cargo tanks, decks, and engine rooms on ships. The review aims at providing a thorough picture of state-of-the-art in anticorrosive coatings systems. International and national legislation aiming at reducing the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have caused significant changes in the anticorrosive coating industry. The requirement for new VOC-compliant coating technologies means that coating manufacturers can no longer rely on the extensive track record of their time-served products to convince consumers of their suitability for use. An important aspect in the development of new VOC-compliant, high-performance anticorrosive coating systems is a thorough knowledge of the components in anticorrosive coatings, their interactions, their advantages and limitations, as well as a detailed knowledge on the failure modes of anticorrosive coatings. This review, which mainly deals with European experience and practice, includes a description of the different environments an anticorrosive coating system may encounter during service. In addition, examples of test methods and standards for determination of the performance and durability of anticorrosive coatings have been included. The different types of anticorrosive coatings are presented, and the most widely applied generic types of binders and pigments in anticorrosive coatings are listed and described. Furthermore, the protective mechanisms of barrier, sacrificial, and inhibitive coatings are outlined. In the past decades, several alternatives to organic solvent-borne coatings have reached the commercial market. This review also presents some of these technologies and discusses some of their advantages and limitations. Finally, some of the mechanisms leading to degradation and failure of organic coating systems are described, and the reported types of adhesion loss are discussed.

Ninety Years Crossing Lake Michigan: The History of the Ann Arbor Car Ferries by Grant Brown, Jr.

112 MichiganHistorical 'Review the footnotes may prove useful to some future scholar or graduate student of immense patience and gende temperament. This book should probably be in some libraryand archival special collections, but it is largely unusable tomost scholars ofMichigan political history and would prove painful and confusing to a more general reader seeking to know more about the role of Polish Americans in the state's political history. John Radzilowski University ofAlaska Southeast Grant Brown, Jr. Ninety Years Crossing Lake Michigan: The History of the Ann Arbor Car Ferries. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008. Pp. 286. Appendix. Bibliography. Index. Notes. Photographs. Paper, $24.95. InNinety Years CrossingLake Michigan: The History of the Ann Arbor Car Ferries, Grant Brown, Jr., presents a case study of a transportation company that today would be called "intermodal." One element consisted of a conventional railroad that began at Toledo, Ohio, and ran northwest across Michigan. At the shore of Lake Michigan, the job became more complicated: fully loaded freight rail cars were transferred to specially designed ferry boats that had tracks at deck level. These "car ferries" then crossed to either northern Wisconsin or the Upper Peninsula. Their design and operation are the center of Brown's detailed account. After briefly sketching the company's somewhat shaky beginnings in 1892, Brown devotes the majority of the book to the numerous challenges the Toledo, Ann Arbor, and North Michigan Railway Company faced in running its ferries. Ships had to be designed both to transport rail cars bearing full loads and to survive severe weather. Because the company's founders pursued a year-round schedule at a time when most Great Lakes shipping stopped for thewinter, the car ferries also had to withstand punishing ice build-ups on the lake. Throughout his book, Brown focuses on the risks navigators faced because of this insistence on operating year round and from their general working conditions. Over the ninety years chronicled here, the author recounts numerous incidents ranging from fires, to capsized boats, to rail cars that broke loose from their moorings during particularly violent storms. Brown ends his story in the early 1980s, when a combination of insufficient capital for improvements, changes BookReviews113 in government regulation, and more efficient competition led to the company's demise. Ninety Years Crossing Lake Michigan contains potentially fascinating information about a litde-known regional transportation carrier in the United States, and Brown's enthusiasm for the subject is apparent throughout the work. Unfortunately, the book does not draw connections to larger contexts or debates in the history of transportation, business, or labor, even though thematerials here offer many opportunities to do so. Nevertheless, there is still a great need in the history of transportation for empirical studies on topics like this that would most likely otherwise remain overlooked. In this regard,Ninety Years CrossingLake Michigan makes a useful contribution to the growing body of such literature. Brown bases his account on extensive local history sources, government documents, and interviews. He also includes evocative contemporary photographs, many from private collections, which show the evolution of ship design and give a strong sense of the hazards faced by those who worked on these ships. Such materials are often difficult to access, and Brown is to be commended formaking them available. Although itwould benefit from amore analytical framework,Ninety Years Crossing Lake Michigan suggests many directions for further research about an important though understudied area in the history of transportation in the United States. It will particularly appeal to those interested in theGreat Lakes region and the role of transportation in its development during the twentieth century. Robert Buerglener, PhD Department ofHistory DePaul University, Chicago Brian Leigh Dunnigan. A PicturesqueSituation:Mackinac before Photography, 1615-1860. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2008. Pp. 408. Bibliography. Illustrations. Index. Maps. Notes. Cloth, $75.00. Although A PicturesqueSituation is a prominent part of thisbook's tide, thiswork is farmore than a picturesque volume. It is one of themost beautifully produced books that Brian Leigh Dunnigan has created and deserves the same type of recognition, prominence, and prizes that came this author's way with his previous volume, FrontierMetropolis, which focused on Detroit. Dunnigan's narrative, coupled...

The Hunter Rail Car: A Versatile Design Solution for Regional Rail Transport

Rolling stock orders in Australia are often for small numbers of vehicles with sophisticated requirements. The design cost associated with these small orders is a significant percentage of the total vehicle cost. A versatile design solution has the potential to satisfy various applications that may be required in the future in an economically sensible manner. The Hunter Rail Car was primarily designed to provide an urban/regional rail transport solution for the Hunter Valley. During the concept design stage, the Hunter Rail Car was configured in such a way to enable convenient modification for other applications such as intercity travel over longer distances. This paper describes how the design configuration of the Hunter Rail Car was developed to be able to accommodate a variety of configurations to suit different suburban and regional rail transport applications. The paper also provides some insight into rail vehicle acquisition and typical considerations for the design of passenger rail vehicles. All 14 Hunter Rail Cars have been delivered to RailCorp and are providing a successful, reliable service.

A Methodology for the Modeling of Forced Dynamical Systems From Time Series Measurements Using Time-Delay Neural Networks

The main goal of this research was to develop and present a general, efficient, mathematical, and theoretical based methodology to model nonlinear forced-vibrating mechanical systems from time series measurements. A system identification modeling methodology for forced dynamical systems is presented based on a dynamic system theory and a nonlinear time series analysis that employ phase space reconstruction (delay vector embedding) in modeling dynamical systems from time series data using time-delay neural networks. The first part of this work details the modeling methodology, including background on dynamic systems, phase space reconstruction, and neural networks. In the second part of this work, the methodology is evaluated based on its ability to model selected analytical lumped-parameter forced-vibrating dynamic systems, including an example of a linear system predicting lumped mass displacement subjected to a displacement forcing function. The work discusses the application to nonlinear systems, multiple degree of freedom systems, and multiple input systems. The methodology is further evaluated on its ability to model an analytical passenger rail car predicting vertical wheel∕rail force using a measured vertical rail profile as the input function. Studying the neural modeling methodology using analytical systems shows the clearest observations from results, providing prospective users of this tool an understanding of the expectations and limitations of the modeling methodology.

Queuing Models for Sizing and Structuring Rental Fleets

This paper has been motivated by a fleet optimization problem faced by one of the leading European cargo rail companies. The company operates a fleet of more than 100,000 rail cars and annually invests significant sums of money into new cars. Because the price tag of a new car is over 50,000 euros, planning such a fleet is an important activity at the company. In this paper, we develop and solve analytical models for fleet planning. We first describe the rental process and show how it can be modeled as a queuing loss system. We then develop a profit function and derive several structural results, such as the concavity of the profit function in the fleet size. Building on these structural results, we show how the fleet size can be optimized, how the fleet structure (i.e., the types of cars being used) can be optimized, and how a joint fleet of owned and leased cars can be optimized. Because some of the optimal methods are difficult to implement, we also develop and test an approximation that is easy to implement. To illustrate our findings and to validate our approach, we provide numerical results that are based on data of the company that motivated our research.

Amorphous wires-based magneto-inductive sensor for nondestructive control

A magneto-inductive prototype sensor based on magnetic amorphous wires which can detect surface cracks formed in ferromagnetic pieces is presented. The sensor consists of a very thin coil having a high permeability core made from Co 68.18Fe 4.32Si 12.5B 15 amorphous wire with nearly zero magnetostriction and presents high sensitivity being able to detect both uniform magnetic field and localized gradient field. The inductance of the sensing coil, fed with an ac signal having a frequency of 150 kHz is changing dramatically with the applied magnetic field. As a consequence, excellent behavior of the magneto-inductive sensor having high sensitivity (60%/Oe) and high resolution was achieved. It is designed for nondestructive testing and specially for rail car bearing rings revision.

Investigation of the weld unzipping failure mode during collisions of welded aluminium rail vehicles

The performance of aluminium welds in rail vehicles under high dynamic loading conditions has been investigated. Aluminium alloy welded joints subjected to dynamic loading can fail by a mechanism of unstable crack growth along the heat affected zone/weld metal interface, a phenomenon commonly known as ‘weld unzipping’. Modelling of weld unzipping in large rail structures is a challenging task since it requires knowledge of material tearing instability and material fracture parameters, as well as addressing the problem of mesh resolution, which together pose severe challenges to computability. The proposed methodology for the prediction of weld failure is based on the validation of the numerical models through correlation with laboratory scale tearing tests. The tearing tests were conducted on samples taken from real rail extrusions with the purpose of obtaining the failure parameters under dynamic loading and understanding the effect of weld material composition on joint behaviour. The validated material models were used to construct a finite-element analysis simulation of the collision of an aluminium rail car and investigate the effect of joint geometry on the failure mechanism. Comparisons of the model with the failure observed in an aluminium rail vehicle that was involved in a high-speed collision have shown that it is possible to model the phenomenon of weld unzipping with good accuracy. The numerical models have also been used as a tool for the optimization of joint design to improve crashworthiness. A proposed thickening of the aluminium sheet at the weld region is shown to eliminate the weld unzipping failure mode with the impact energy absorbed by controlled buckling of the structure.

ABOUT THE ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF PASSENGER CARS

The question of electromagnetic compatibility with signaling and communication devices of the electric equipment of domestic production coaches is surveyed; the problems rising before domestic rail car manufacturer in connection with providing of accomplishment of the normative documentation requirements on electromagnetic compatibility for the purpose of traffic safety rising of the rail rolling stock and providing the passengers safety during passenger traffic are stated.

Techbits: Digital Technologies Highlighted at Conference

The energy industry is at the start of an unavoidable renaissance, driven by increased globalization of E&P, the development of a multicultural workforce, and the increased need for data on demand. This was the message of the SPE 2007 Digital Energy Conference and Exhibition, held in April in Houston. The 2-day event was organized through SPE's Gulf Coast section Digital Energy Study Group. The conference began with a focus on current successes in implementing digital technologies in the workplace and what technology is needed going forward. Charlie Williams, Chief Scientist of Well Engineering and Production Technology, Shell International E&P, gave the first keynote address, describing how Shell has implemented digital technologies in its field operations with particular emphasis on "smart fields." An executive roundtable that followed brought together executives from operating and technology companies to discuss business drivers in the E&P community and the types of supporting technologies that have been developed to address these drivers. The luncheon keynote was delivered by Phiroz Darukhanavala, BP Vice President and Chief Technology Officer of Digital and Communications Technology. "Knowledge, computing power, and technological evolution are exploding at such a rate that we are seeing a blurring of boundaries between the physical world and the digital world," he said. These advances are evident on the Internet and in fields such as aviation, and the oil and gas industry has been swept up in this digitization as well. "It's happening upstream and down, from the initial exploration efforts to drilling to production, refining, transportation, and out to the customer's gas tank," he said. Darukhanavala pointed to several current examples of how digital advances affect daily operations. One is in so-called smart drilling, being able to run an analysis at the rigsite and get the results in minutes vs. having to capture mud samples, send them to a laboratory, and wait 2 to 3 days for results. Other examples include being able to quickly measure production flow rates, wirelessly monitoring the working condition of rotating equipment, and seamlessly tracking the location and movements of rail cars and other transportation vessels. While all of this digitization has resulted in an exponential growth in the amount of information available to make informed decisions, Darukhanavala warned that it might be too much of a good thing. "With this deluge of data, the question becomes, How do we manage it and not drown in it? In my opinion, a data plug is almost as bad as a data drought, and even more expensive for the business," he said.

War, Peace, and Nonweapons Technology: The Japanese National Railways and Products of Defeat, 1880s-1950s

This article examines the impact of war and peace on common technologies of daily life, such as passenger rail cars in Japan from the 1880s to 1950s. It highlights the roles of two groups of actors in the transition from wooden cars to steel after the military defeat in 1945: ordinary railway passengers capitalizing on reconfigured power relationships in society, and former military engineers reconfiguring the engineering culture. The successful shift from wood to steel in the Japanese National Railways provides a case study of how and why nonweapons technology could become adaptable, accommodating, and innovative after war.

Microeconomic impacts of investments in high speed trains in Spain

In this paper, we analyze the effects of new high-speed trains (HST) on passengers’ mobility in Spain. The construction of several new HST lines is planned in the Transport Infrastructure Masterplan of the Spanish Ministry of Transport and Public Works (MOTPW) for the period 2000–2010, and they are expected to cause a major change in the transport sector. Our objectives are twofold: firstly, we estimate the modal split (market shares of air, rail, bus and private car) in the equilibria induced by the new high speed lines; and secondly we calculate the number of passengers for these new HST services, in order to evaluate the revitalization of railways in the horizon 2010. Data stem from a mobility survey carried out by the MOTPW. A gravity model is estimated to forecast passenger flows between Spanish provinces in 2010, and we also estimate a multinomial logit model to calibrate passengers’ choice of transport mode. Results indicate that the impacts of new HST services will vary across routes, and they depend on the spatial location of the new routes.

Failure analysis of three reconditioned rail car couplers

Three reconditioned rail car couplers, arbitrarily identified as couplers, failed during service due to cracking of the front face. The three couplers were reportedly upgraded by quenching and tempering to enhance strength and toughness. The objective of this investigation was to determine the mode of crack propagation and the root cause of the observed failures.

Metal capital sustaining a North American city: Iron and copper in New Haven, CT

A detailed inventory shows that an average resident of the City of New Haven depends on a per capita capital stock of 9200 kg/c of iron and 144 kg/c of copper in the city infrastructure, buildings, transportation systems, and equipment. Of the iron stock 28% is in items such as rail cars and ships in ocean trade not permanently within the city, and 22% is devoted to receiving and delivering oil fuel to the city and its surrounding communities. Copper is principally used in the distribution of electric power and in water piping within buildings. The city's 9200 kg/c of iron stock-in-use is less than the 13,000 kg/c national average due to New Haven's lack of heavy industry and relatively small number of large buildings. The 144 kg/c of copper stock-in-use is only 58% of the overall value for the United States, but is comparable to that in cities such as Stockholm, Sweden. Attainment of a level of iron and copper services with contemporary technology in less developed countries to the level enjoyed in New Haven would require consumption of the presently identified world copper resources.