Radiocarbon Determinations Research Articles

Aspects of Radiocarbon Determinations and the Dating of the Transition from The Chalcolithic Period to Early Bronze Age I in the Southern Levant

Bien qu’une séquence chrono-culturelle comprenant une période chalcolitique suivie d’un Bronze ancien ait été depuis longtemps établie pour le sud Levant, la transition entre ces deux périodes demeure mal comprise. Des découvertes récentes, en particulier dans le piémont occidental de Judée-Samarie, la Shéphéla, témoignent d’une occupation continue. Elles fournissent des informations importantes sur la nature de cette transition et sur les liens entre la Shéphéla et le reste du sud du Levant. Les résultats obtenus par le radiocarbone à partir des vestiges provenant du site de Modi’in dans la région de la Shéphéla sont examinés. Ils permettent de dater la transition entre le Chalcolithique et le Bronze ancien de la première moitié du IVe millénaire avant notre ère. En utilisant la méthode bayésienne, ces données sont ensuite incorporées dans un ensemble interrégional de datations. Cette approche permet une meilleure évaluation des dates d’occupation des sites considérés et de la séquence de la transition, tout en offrant un guide pratique permettant d’estimer la place chronologique des vestiges archéologiques.

High-resolution radiocarbon dating of marine materials in archaeological contexts: radiocarbon marine reservoir variability between Anadara, Gafrarium, Batissa, Polymesoda spp. and Echinoidea at Caution Bay, Southern Coastal Papua New Guinea

The remains of shellfish dominate many coastal archaeological sites in the Pacific and provide a wealth of information about economy, culture, environment and climate. Shells are therefore the logical sample type to develop local and regional radiocarbon chronologies. The calibration of radiocarbon (14C) dates on marine animals is not straightforward, however, requiring an understanding of habitat and dietary preferences as well as detailed knowledge of local ocean conditions. The most complex situations occur where terrestrial influences impinge on the marine environment resulting in both the enrichment and depletion of 14C (Ulm Geoarchaeology 17(4):319–348, 2002; Petchey and Clark Quat Geochronol 6:539–549, 2011). A sampling protocol that combines a high-resolution excavation methodology, selection of short-lived samples identified to species level, and a tri-isotope approach using 14C, δ13C and δ18O, has given us the ability to identify 14C source variation that would otherwise have been obscured. Here, we present new research that details high-resolution mapping of marine 14C reservoir variation between Gafrarium tumidum, Gafrarium pectinatum, Anadara granosa, Anadara antiquata, Batissa violacea, Polymesoda erosa and Echinoidea from the Bogi 1 archaeological site, Caution Bay, southern coastal Papua New Guinea. These isotopes highlight specific dietary, habitat and behavioural variations that are key to obtaining chronological information from shell radiocarbon determinations.

Neolithic occupation of an artesian spring: KS043 in the Kharga Oasis, Egypt

KS043 is a stratified site associated with a complex of artesian springs. The archaeological remains, as well as a series of radiocarbon determinations, date the site to between 4800 and 4200 b.c. Our study suggests a connection between Saharan pastoralists, forced to move into oasis areas by increasing aridification, and the first Predynastic cultures of the Nile Valley. The site is the only well dated stratified settlement attributed to the Late Neolithic in the eastern Sahara that is characterized by Tasian cultural traditions.

Τesting models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: The radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle

The German site of Geißenklösterle is crucial to debates concerning the European Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition and the origins of the Aurignacian in Europe. Previous dates from the site are central to an important hypothesis, the Kulturpumpe model, which posits that the Swabian Jura was an area where crucial behavioural developments took place and then spread to other parts of Europe. The previous chronology (critical to the model), is based mainly on radiocarbon dating, but remains poorly constrained due to the dating resolution and the variability of dates. The cause of these problems is disputed, but two principal explanations have been proposed: a) larger than expected variations in the production of atmospheric radiocarbon, and b) taphonomic influences in the site mixing the bones that were dated into different parts of the site. We reinvestigate the chronology using a new series of radiocarbon determinations obtained from the Mousterian, Aurignacian and Gravettian levels. The results strongly imply that the previous dates were affected by insufficient decontamination of the bone collagen prior to dating. Using an ultrafiltration protocol the chronometric picture becomes much clearer. Comparison of the results against other recently dated sites in other parts of Europe suggests the Early Aurignacian levels are earlier than other sites in the south of France and Italy, but not as early as recently dated sites which suggest a pre-Aurignacian dispersal of modern humans to Italy by ∼45000 cal BP. They are consistent with the importance of the Danube Corridor as a key route for the movement of people and ideas. The new dates fail to refute the Kulturpumpe model and suggest that Swabian Jura is a region that contributed significantly to the evolution of symbolic behaviour as indicated by early evidence for figurative art, music and mythical imagery.

‘SPROUTING LIKE COCKLE AMONGST THE WHEAT’: THE ST BRICE'S DAY MASSACRE AND THE ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS OF HUMAN BONES FROM ST JOHN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD

SummaryThe recent discovery in St John's College of a mass burial of mostly young adult males with severe perimortem blade trauma has prompted the suggestion that these may be related to the St Brice's Day Massacre in Oxford on 13th November AD 1002. Three radiocarbon determinations suggest that a date in the tenth century is more likely. We have nevertheless undertaken an isotopic study of the bone collagen (δ13C and δ15N) and dental enamel (δ13C, δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr) in an attempt to answer the question ‘were these individuals of Danish descent?’ Our conclusion is somewhat ambiguous, but the bone collagen suggests a diet more like other Scandinavian populations than that of local groups, and the enamel isotopes point towards a Scandinavian rather than a lowland English origin. Comparison with Oxford Archaeology's recently excavated Weymouth Ridgeway mass burial suggests, however, that the execution of a captured raiding party is more likely than the slaughter of Oxford inhabitants of Danish descent.

Iron Age Enclosed Settlements in West Wales

This paper presents the results of several years' research on late Iron Age enclosed settlements in west Wales. Geophysical survey was conducted on 21 sites and three of these, Troedyrhiw, Ffynnonwen, and Berry Hill, were part-excavated. Most sites examined were heavily plough-damaged, but results of the surveys and excavations demonstrated that substantial archaeological remains survive. Approximately 60 enclosed settlements lay in the core study area of southern Ceredigion (Cardiganshire), half of which were oval in shape and half rectangular. Both types contain suites of buildings seen in much of the British Iron Age – round-houses and 4-/6-post structures. Evidence from the excavations supports data from elsewhere in the region indicating that small oval enclosures appear in the landscape in the 2nd–1st centuriesbc, with rectangular enclosures constructed right at the end of the Iron Age. Dating is based almost entirely on radiocarbon determinations as, in common with other similar-aged sites in west Wales, artefacts are almost completely absent. It was not possible during excavation at Troedyrhiw to conclusively demonstrate late prehistoric use of the rectangular enclosed settlement, but a Roman pottery assemblage in the upper fills of the enclosure ditch coupled with a two phase entrance is interpreted as indicating Late Iron Age construction. More complex remains were revealed during excavations at Ffynnonwen, a circular enclosed settlement within a larger oval enclosure. Here, three round-houses, a 4- and 6-post structure and other remains were investigated and radiocarbon dated to the 8th–6th centuriesbcthrough to the early Romano-British period. Berry Hill, an inland promontory fort, appeared to be unfinished and abandoned. Radiocarbon determinations indicated a Late Bronze Age construction (10th–8th centuriesbc). The paper concludes with a consideration of a number of interpretive issues regarding settlement, enclosure, identity, and ways of living.

A new chronostratigraphic framework for the Upper Palaeolithic of Riparo Mochi (Italy)

The rockshelter of Mochi, on the Ligurian coast of Italy, is often used as a reference point in the formation of hypotheses concerning the arrival of the Aurigancian in Mediterranean Europe. Yet, the site is poorly known. Here, we describe the stratigraphic sequence based on new field observations and present 15 radiocarbon determinations from the Middle Palaeolithic (late Mousterian) and Early Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian and Gravettian) levels. The majority of dates were produced on humanly modified material, specifically marine shell beads, which comprise some of the oldest directly-dated personal ornaments in Europe. The radiocarbon results are incorporated into a Bayesian statistical model to build a new chronological framework for this key Palaeolithic site. A tentative correlation of the stratigraphy to palaeoclimatic records is also attempted.

The Origins of the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia

White and Hamilton (J World Prehist 22: 357–97, 2009) have proposed a model for the origin of the Southeast Asian Bronze Age founded on seven AMS radiocarbon determinations from the Northeast Thai site of Ban Chiang, which would date the initial Bronze Age there to about 2000 BC. Since this date is too early for the derivation of a bronze industry from the documented exchange that linked Southeast Asia with Chinese states during the 2nd millennium BC, they have identified the Seima-Turbino 3rd millennium BC forest-steppe technology of the area between the Urals and the Altai as the source of the Southeast Asian Bronze Age. We challenge this model by presenting a new chronological framework for Ban Chiang, which supports our model that the knowledge of bronze metallurgy reached Southeast Asia only in the late 2nd millennium BC, through contact with the states of the Yellow and Yangtze valleys.

Revisiting Quanterness: new AMS dates and stable isotope data from an Orcadian chamber tomb

A total of 20 new AMS radiocarbon determinations on human bone have been obtained for the Neolithic chamber tomb of Quanterness, Orkney. The results show poor agreement with the recorded stratigraphy, suggesting extensive mixing of the chamber deposits. A Bayesian model treating all of the determinations as deriving from a single phase of activity provides a start date in the range 3510 – 3220 cal BC (most probably falling after 3450 cal BC), with the main phase of burial activity ending in the range 2850–2790 cal BC (95.4% probability). This presents a tighter range than previously available, but nevertheless appears to confirm the longevity of burial activity at the monument. Osteologically, there is no convincing evidence for excarnation, and the representation of the small bones of the hands and feet, together with the absence of sub-aerial weathering, make it unlikely that the bulk of the human bone assemblage was brought in from elsewhere, as had previously been suggested. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope measurements average –20.5 ± 0.4‰ and 11.1 ± 0.6‰ respectively, indicating no appreciable consumption of marine protein despite the site’s location less than 1km from the coast. There are tentative but intriguing diachronic trends in both isotopes, with δ13C values decreasing, and δ15N values increasing through time; this could suggest changing farming practices, though the details remain unclear. The dating and the palaeodietary findings are discussed within the context of Middle/Late Neolithic Orkney, emphasising the former’s relevance to debates concerning the origin of Maes Howe-type passage tombs and the appearance of Grooved Ware. The radiocarbon dates support the view that Grooved Ware emerged as a novel pottery tradition in Orkney between c 3300/3200 and c
 3100 BC.

Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer subsistence in Mediterranean coastal environments: an isotopic study of the diets of the earliest directly-dated humans from Sicily

The subsistence of hunter-gatherers in the Mediterranean Basin has been the object of few studies, which have not fully clarified the role of aquatic resources in their diets. Here we present the results of AMS radiocarbon dating and of isotope analyses on the earliest directly-dated human remains from Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. The radiocarbon determinations show that the Upper Palaeolithic (Epigravettian) humans from Grotta di San Teodoro (15 232–14 126 cal. BP) and Grotta Addaura Caprara (16 060–15 007 cal. BP) date to the Late-glacial and were possibly contemporary. The diets of these individuals were dominated by the protein of large terrestrial mammalian herbivores, such as red deer ( Cervus elaphus). There is no evidence for the consumption of marine resources, which is probably the result not only of the oligotrophic nature of the Mediterranean, but also perhaps of the lack of adequate technology for exploiting intensively the resources from this sea. In spite of being contemporaneous and of the cultural and technological affinities present between the San Teodoro and Addaura humans, the carbon (δ 13C) and nitrogen (δ 15N) isotope composition of their bone collagen suggests that significant differences were present in their diets. In particular, the hunter-gatherers from Grotta di San Teodoro, in NE Sicily where coastal plains are backed by high mountain chains (Monti Nebrodi), probably had easy access to resources such as anadromous brown trout ( Salmo trutta), which might not have been similarly available in the NW of the island, where reliefs are noticeably lower and watercourses fewer and farther between. This study shows that the high biodiversity of this region, which results from the complex topography of Mediterranean landscapes, was probably exploited opportunistically by Late-glacial foragers. Our data also suggest that intensification and diversification of food acquisition in Sicily did not start in the closing stages of the late Pleistocene, as in other Mediterranean regions, probably because the island had only been (re-)colonized by humans around the Last Glacial Maximum.

High-precision dating of colonization and settlement in East Polynesia

Wilmshurst et al. (1) proposed recent and rapid colonization of East Polynesia based on analysis of 1,434 radiocarbon determinations. We commend the development of rigorous and replicable radiocarbon protocols that emphasize accuracy and precision, but we found (i) inaccuracies in their originally published supplementary data table, (ii) problems with their criteria for exclusion and inclusion of valid colonization estimators (i.e., Class 1 dates), and (iii) biases in their statistical analysis.

Chapter 14: Analysis of Chronological Parameters for the Aitape District Pottery Sequence

Abstract Radiocarbon determinations suggest that the earliest pottery thus far identified on the Sepik coast, which we have called Nyapin Ware after a locality on Tumleo Island, dates back to the interval 2,000–1,500 BP (95% highest posterior density [HPD]). A more precise estimate can be made for the Sumalo Ware as currently known in the Aitape area. Analysis suggests that Sumalo Ware was locally in use over a period of between 5 and 270 years (95% HPD) beginning some time in the interval 1,400–1,200 BP (95% HPD). Additionally, a local marine ΔR of 1,005 ± 80 can be estimated for this location.

Isotopes and impact: a cautionary tale

There can be no doubt that isotopic studies have made a huge contribution to archaeology in recent years, so much so thatisotope archaeologyis now seen as an essential subdiscipline of archaeology in much the same way as isotope geochemistry is a key subdiscipline of geochemistry. Ignoring for current purposes the contribution made by the measurement of a particular radioactive isotope of carbon (14C) since 1950, we can date the beginnings of isotope archaeology to the mid 1960s with the first measurements of lead isotopes in archaeological metals and slags by Brill and Wampler (1965, 1967). This was followed by carbon stable isotopes in human bone collagen in the late 1970s, building on previous work measuring σ13C in archaeological bone for radiocarbon determinations (Vogel & Van der Merwe 1977; Van der Merwe & Vogel 1978). Other isotopes followed rapidly, such as nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and hydrogen for archaeological, palaeoecological or palaeoclimatological purposes and, more recently, the heavier radiogenic isotopes of strontium and neodymium for determining the provenance of organic and inorganic materials (Pollard & Heron 2008).

Mid-Holocene occupation of Egypt and global climatic change

Occupation of the Egyptian Western Desert during the Holocene is linked with the summer monsoon, the position and intensity of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the use of internal lakes and playas fed by summer rain. In contrast, such correlations are absent for the Fayum region of Egypt where occupation instead correlates with mid-Holocene increases in intensity of Mediterranean winter rainfall. Lake Qarun in the Fayum was the only lake where Near Eastern plant domesticates were used during the early-mid-Holocene period. Analysis of radiocarbon determinations is presented which suggests that, unlike later agriculture in the Nile Valley, early use of domesticates in the Fayum involved a dependence on winter rains for cereal cultivation following the Mediterranean growth seasons. It is proposed that the switch to a winter growing season after summer inundation occurred later, probably as part of key socio-economic changes during the Egyptian Predynastic period.

Multi-phase Construction Sequences and Aggregate Site Complexes of the Prehistoric Windward Society Islands (French Polynesia)

ABSTRACT In the Society Islands, concentrations of temple sites, as are found in aggregate site complexes, are considered material equivalents of kin-congregations where lineages proliferated and segmented through time. Such site complexes are ubiquitous in the Windward Society Islands; however, few have been studied in detail, leaving the precise timing of their construction and use unknown. Excavations at ‘Opunohu Valley aggregate complexes in the 1960s suggested that major marae complexes served as elite centers and were a late phenomenon. Here I present a new suite of radiocarbon determinations from ‘Opunohu Valley structures in five aggregate site complexes. The expanded chronology identifies two different phases of site construction, the first dating to ca. AD 1400–1500 and associated with a major inland expansion, the second post-dating AD 1600 and related to a period of intensified chiefly competition whereby new temples and elaborate house sites were constructed or enlarged and elaborated. The initial construction of temple structures within aggregate sites is both earlier than once thought and multi-staged, linked to community and regional socio-political change expressed at the local level. I briefly outline the implications for aggregate site construction and use and correlate these to ethnohistoric references regarding shifting patterns of political control through time.

RADIOCARBON DATES FROM THE OXFORD AMS SYSTEM: ARCHAEOMETRY DATELIST 34

This is the thirty‐fourth list of AMS radiocarbon determinations measured at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). Amongst the dates obtained for archaeological sites included here are the latest series of determinations from the key sites of Proskynas (Greece), Kovačevo (Bulgaria) and Khirbet Qeiyafa (Israel), as well as others dating to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and later periods. Submitters of the material provide comments on the significance of the results.

Earliest Directly-Dated Human Skull-Cups

BackgroundThe use of human braincases as drinking cups and containers has extensive historic and ethnographic documentation, but archaeological examples are extremely rare. In the Upper Palaeolithic of western Europe, cut-marked and broken human bones are widespread in the Magdalenian (∼15 to 12,000 years BP) and skull-cup preparation is an element of this tradition.Principal FindingsHere we describe the post-mortem processing of human heads at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Gough's Cave (Somerset, England) and identify a range of modifications associated with the production of skull-cups. New analyses of human remains from Gough's Cave demonstrate the skilled post-mortem manipulation of human bodies. Results of the research suggest the processing of cadavers for the consumption of body tissues (bone marrow), accompanied by meticulous shaping of cranial vaults. The distribution of cut-marks and percussion features indicates that the skulls were scrupulously 'cleaned' of any soft tissues, and subsequently modified by controlled removal of the facial region and breakage of the cranial base along a sub-horizontal plane. The vaults were also ‘retouched’, possibly to make the broken edges more regular. This manipulation suggests the shaping of skulls to produce skull-cups.ConclusionsThree skull-cups have been identified amongst the human bones from Gough's Cave. New ultrafiltered radiocarbon determinations provide direct dates of about 14,700 cal BP, making these the oldest directly dated skull-cups and the only examples known from the British Isles.

Preceramic maize from Paredones and Huaca Prieta, Peru

Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) is among the world's most important and ancient domesticated crops. Although the chronology of its domestication and initial dispersals out of Mexico into Central and South America has become more clear due to molecular and multiproxy archaeobotanical research, important problems remain. Among them is the paucity of information on maize's early morphological evolution and racial diversification brought about in part by the poor preservation of macrofossils dating to the pre-5000 calibrated years before the present period from obligate dispersal routes located in the tropical forest. We report newly discovered macrobotanical and microbotanical remains of maize that shed significant light on the chronology, land race evolution, and cultural contexts associated with the crop's early movements into South America and adaptation to new environments. The evidence comes from the coastal Peruvian sites of Paredones and Huaca Prieta, Peru; dates from the middle and late preceramic and early ceramic periods (between ca. 6700 and 3000 calibrated years before the present); and constitutes some of the earliest known cobs, husks, stalks, and tassels. The macrobotanical record indicates that a diversity of racial complexes characteristic of the Andean region emerged during the preceramic era. In addition, accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon determinations carried out directly on different structures of preserved maize plants strongly suggest that assays on burned cobs are more reliable than those on unburned cobs. Our findings contribute to knowledge of the early diffusion of maize and agriculture and have broader implications for understanding the development of early preindustrial human societies.

Bosiliack: A Later Prehistoric Settlement in West Penwith, Cornwall and its Context

In 1984 two roundhouses within the Bronze Age settlement at Bosiliack were partially excavated by Jeannette Ratclife and Charles Thomas on behalf of the Institute of Cornish Studies. Six radiocarbon determinations have now been obtained on charcoal from these. The dates fall into two groups, with three in the later part of the Bronze Age in the centuries between 1390 and 1000 cal. BC, and three in the Iron Age between 750 and 200 cal. BC. The radiocarbon dates are important because, although settlements of roundhouses are well known in west Penwith, none had been scientifically dated. They are also significant because they demonstrate the longevity and changing character of occupation within the roundhouses, and demonstrate the differing biographies of adjacent structures. This paper outlines the results from the excavations and the radiocarbon dating programme before moving on to a discussion of settlement on the west Penwith uplands.

Radiocarbon Evidence from the Middle Bronze Age Settlement At Portella (Aeolian Islands, Italy): Chronological and Archaeological Implications

This paper deals with radiocarbon determinations from the Middle Bronze Age site of Portella on the island of Salina (Aeolian Archipelago, Italy). The available14C evidence is taken into account, in a simple Bayesian model, in order to explore the issue of the absolute chronology of both the settlement and the stage of the local cultural sequence to which Portella belongs. A high date is proposed for the start of the Aeolian (and Sicilian) Middle Bronze Age: 1556–1422 cal BC (95.4% confidence), with a a most likely (modal) date of about 1450 cal BC. Further, the analysis suggests that the Portella phase is likely to have been a very short one, with a span of 0–65 yr (68.2%) or 0–131 yr (95.4%). The archaeological implications are explored. The relation of these results to the evidence of ceramic phasing is also considered. Since Aegean datable ceramic imports are documented in Aeolian/Sicilian Middle Bronze Age contexts, the connection between Portella's chronology and the absolute dating of one of the Aegean phases (namely, Late Helladic IIIA1) is also investigated.