Wireless Standards Research Articles

Introduction to Time-Sensitive Networking

Since the year 2000, a number of companies and standards development organizations have been producing products and standards for Time-Sensitive Networking to support real-time applications that require zero packet loss due to buffer congestion, extremely low packet loss due to equipment failure, and guaranteed upper bounds on end-to-end latency. Often, a robust capability for time synchronization to less than 1 s is also required. These networks consist of specially-featured bridges that are interconnected using standard Ethernet links with standard MAC/PHY layers. Since the year 2012, this technology has advanced to the use of routers, as well as bridges, and features of interest to Time-Sensitive Net-working have been added to both Ethernet and wireless standards. Since the year 2018, TSN standardization has been expanding to include more queuing and pacing technologies, and to support new markets, such as industrial, automotive, aviation, and service provider applications.

Radio Challenges, Architectures, and Design Considerations for Wireless Infrastructure: Creating the Core Technologies That Connect People Around the World

Within a relatively short period of time, we have seen five distinct generations of cellular technology roll out, with each delivering enhancements in terms of quality of service (QoS) while at the same time enabling new features and services, as highlighted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Figure 1</xref> . Every successive generation of wireless standards has introduced advances in data-carrying capacity and reliable low latency as well as different use cases. At first glance, we may expect that the evolution is driven by the insatiable and ever-increasing demand for capacity, where a year-on-year growth of global mobile network data traffic is in excess of 40% <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">[1]</xref> . The traffic growth is primarily driven by both the rising number of smartphones and subscriptions and an increasing average data volume per subscription. However, as we start to look deeper, we see a much more intricate set of requirements and complexities that intertwine: the applications, technical requirements, and radio technology developments. The evolution could not have happened were it not enabled by a parallel evolution in cellular base station technology to support more spectrum, better spectral efficiency, and network densification.

LoRaWAN Security: An Evolvable Survey on Vulnerabilities, Attacks and their Systematic Mitigation

The changing vulnerability and threat landscape constantly challenge the security of wireless communication standards and protocols. For the Internet of Things (IoT), LoRaWAN is one of the dominant technologies for urban environments, industrial settings, or critical infrastructures due to its low-power and long-range capabilities. LoRaWAN IoT deployments are expected to operate for multiple years or even decades. Hence, it is imperative to maintain operational security at all times while continuously evolving the security of the standard and its implementations. We survey LoRaWAN security and follow a systematic and evolvable approach that can be dynamically updated. To this end, we propose a novel methodology to create evolvable surveys which relate the analyzed critical security concepts, thus allowing IT security experts to reason about LoRaWAN security properties over time. With this, we provide a tool to hardware manufacturers, software developers and providers, and network operators to achieve sustainable security for IoT deployments.

Theoretical and experimental study of performance anomaly in multi-rate IEEE802.11ac wireless networks

IEEE 802.11 wireless local area networks (WLANs) are shared networks, which use contention-based distributed coordination function (DCF) to share access to wireless medium among numerous wireless stations. The performance of the distributed coordination function mechanism mostly depends on the network load, number of wireless nodes and their data rates. The throughput unfairness, also known as performance anomaly is inherent in the very nature of mixed data rate Wi-Fi networks using the distributed coordination function. This unfairness exhibits itself through the fact that slow clients consume more airtime to transfer a given amount of data, leaving less airtime for fast clients. In this paper, we comprehensively examine the performance anomaly in multi-rate wireless networks using three approaches: experimental measurement, analytical modelling and simulation in Network Simulator v.3 (NS3). The results of our practical experiments benchmarking the throughput of a multi-rate 802.11ac wireless network clearly shows that even the recent wireless standards still suffer from airtime consumption unfairness. It was shown that even a single low-data rate station can decrease the throughput of high-data rate stations by 3–6 times. The simulation and analytical modelling confirm this finding with considerably high accuracy. Most of the theoretical models evaluating performance anomaly in Wi-Fi networks suggest that all stations get the same throughput independently of the used data rate. However, experimental and simulation results have demonstrated that despite a significant performance degradation high-speed stations still outperform stations with lower data rates once the difference between data rates becomes more significant. This is due to the better efficiency of the TCP protocol working over a fast wireless connection. It is also noteworthy that the throughput achieved by a station when it monopolistically uses the wireless media is considerably less than 50 % of its data rate due to significant overheads even in most recent Wi-Fi technologies. Mitigating performance anomaly in mixed-data rate WLANs requires a holistic approach that combines frame aggregation/fragmentation and adaption of data rates, contention window and other link-layer parameters.

A Fast and Accurate Approximation of IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer Models for Network Simulators

Network simulators are used for the research and development of several types of networks. However, one of the limitations of these simulators is the usage of simplified theoretical models of the Packet Error Rate (PER) at the Physical Layer (PHY) of the IEEE 802.11 family of wireless standards. Although the simplified PHY model can significantly reduce the simulation time, the resulting PER can differ considerably from other more realistic results. In this work, we first study several PER theoretical models. Then, we propose a curve fitting algorithm, which is able to obtain a fast and accurate approximation of other PER models. The curve fitting algorithm uses simulated data as input and outputs the coefficients of a simple model that offers a very accurate approximation of the original PER. Finally, we implemented this approximation in the ns-3 network simulator, thus obtaining high realism since now we can select several theoretical PER models or even a more realistic scenario with the effect of the high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in the signal. The ns-3 results show how the selection of the PER model at the PHY can significantly impact the Packet Loss Rate (PLR) of a scenario composed of a linear chain of several nodes, one of the simplest multi-hop scenarios.

Spectrogram Data Set for Deep-Learning-Based RF Frame Detection

Automated spectrum analysis serves as a troubleshooting tool that helps to diagnose faults in wireless networks such as difficult signal propagation conditions and coexisting wireless networks. It provides a higher monitoring coverage while requiring less expertise compared with manual spectrum analysis. In this paper, we introduce a data set that can be used to train and evaluate deep learning models, capable of detecting frames from different wireless standards as well as interference between single frames. Since manually labeling a high variety of frames in different environments is too challenging, an artificial data generation pipeline was developed. The data set consists of 20,000 augmented signal segments, each containing a random number of different Wi-Fi and Bluetooth frames, their spectral image representations and labels that describe the position and type of frame within the spectrogram. The data set contains results of intermediate processing steps that enable the research or teaching community to create new data sets for specific requirements or to provide new interesting examination examples.

Design of a novel 5G MIMO antenna with its DGP optimisation using PSOGSA

ABSTRACT In this manuscript, the design of a high isolation Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Hybrid Fractal Antenna (HFA) has been presented for 5 G and other wireless standards in a wider operational frequency range from 1 to 30 GHz. The fractional ground plane is used for the assembly of the antenna in the initial phase, further, the T-stub has been exploited on the ground plane to expand the isolation between the radiating elements. The dimensions of the proposed antenna are optimised using the Particle Swarm Optimisation Gravitational Search Algorithm (PSOGSA). The performance parameters of the projected antenna have been measured and analysed. The obtained experimental results are highly correlated with simulated ones. Performance diversity parameters of designed antenna like CCL, DG, ECC, TARC, and MEG fall within working limits in the frequency range of interest. The developed antenna retains high isolation between −30 to−50 dB in the desired frequency range. The proposed model of an antenna can be useful for 5 G 3.5 GHz band, 5 G NR (New Radio) frequency bands (3.3–5.0 GHz), LTE band 46 (5.15–5.925 GHz), European Union 5 G frequency band (5.9–6.4 GHz), 5 G 26 GHz frequency band and other wireless standards in the frequency range from 1 to 30 GHz.

Challenges Regarding Network Neutrality for Commercial Deployment of 5G Networks

The paper aims to analyze the impact of equal data treatment applied in the European Union (EU) on the commercial deployment of the upcoming wireless standards such as 5G and beyond. The analysis of the different network neutrality involves several aspects, including engineering, social, economic and political aspects. Considering recent advancements in wireless networks like Network Function Virtualization or Network Slicing, this opens new research possibilities to analyze how various models influence aspects like the profitability of modern standards. To perform the study, a broad literature review and five interviews with the stakeholders from the industry have been done. Then, the knowledge has been segmented and interpreted so that an analysis of the net neutrality on future wireless standards has been given.

Temperature Sensing Shape Morphing Antenna (ShMoA).

Devices that can morph their functions on demand provide a rich yet unexplored paradigm for the next generation of electronic devices and sensors. For example, an antenna that can morph its shape can be used to adapt communication to different wireless standards or improve wireless signal reception. We utilize temperature-sensitive shape memory alloys (SMA) to realize a shape morphing antenna (ShMoA). In the designed architecture, multiple conjoined shape memory alloy sections form the antenna. The shape morphing of this antenna is achieved through temperature control. Different temperature threshold levels are used for programming the shape. Besides its conventional use for RF applications, ShMoA can serve as a multi-level temperature sensor, analogous to thermoreceptors in an insect antenna. ShMoA essentially combines the function of temperature sensing, embedded computing for detection of threshold crossings, and radio frequency readout, all in the single construct of a shape-morphing antenna (ShMoA) without the need for any battery or peripheral electronics. The ShMoA can be employed as bio-inspired wireless temperature sensing antennae on mobile robotic flies, insects, drones and other robots. It can also be deployed as programmable antennas for multi-standard wireless communication.

Fine Time Measurement for the Internet of Things: A Practical Approach Using ESP32

In the world of Internet of Things (IoT), obtaining the physical location of devices has always been a task of great interest for developing increasingly complex location-based services (LBS). That is why in recent years wireless communication standards have been incorporating new additions focused on providing localization mechanisms to technologies widely used in the IoT world, such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. In particular, the IEEE 802.11-2016 Wi-Fi standard introduced ranging estimation between two devices through the so-called fine time measurement (FTM) protocol, defined by the IEEE 802.11mc. FTM is not yet widespread in the IoT field, but commercial modules capable of offering this functionality at a reasonable price are starting to appear. In early 2021, the most widespread system on a chip (SOC) family among IoT devices, the ESP32-XX series, added support for this Wi-Fi standard, enabling, for the first time, the use of a standard designed for location-based systems. This article analyzes the performance of this FTM implementation by carrying out and studying several measurement campaigns in different indoor and outdoor scenarios. Additionally, this work proposes an alternative real-time implementation for distance estimation inside the ESP32 using an approach based on machine learning. Such an implementation is successfully validated in a scenario totally different than those considered for the training and test sets. Finally, both the measurement sets and the developed software are available to the scientific community.

Tackling the Challenges of the Integration of Wired and Wireless TSN With a Technology Proof-of-Concept

Standard wireless systems are rapidly evolving to support the strict requirements of industrial applications. In this research line, wireless time-sensitive networking (TSN) is gaining momentum, thanks to the interest of wired TSN among the industries. A critical aspect of the wireless TSN research is the integration of wired and wireless TSN to create large-scale hybrid TSN networks. This integration is currently being discussed for 5G, whereas the integration between wired TSN and IEEE 802.11 is a step behind. To address this gap in the state of the art, this article discusses the integration challenges of wired TSN and wireless local area network technologies and proposes a hybrid TSN device architecture. Based on the architecture, we have developed a hybrid TSN network proof-of-concept. The proof-of-concept demonstrates that the hybrid TSN architecture can maintain the essential TSN services, including providing guaranteed latency in the 100-microsecond level.

An Implementation of Iot Based Electrical Device Surveillance and Control using Sensor System

IoT (Internet of Things) is expanding its market share and opening up new avenues for innovation with each improvement in Internet speed &amp; Bandwidth. According to data compiled by the Prevention Council while the Environmental Protection Association, the average mortality toll from fire is 10.5% and from petrol is 11%. This research endeavour addresses the issue of electrical appliance safety. IoT-based control system with gas, fire and temperature sensors; lcd(16x2) displays system status and sensor data. In this setup, loads are managed mechanically based on sensor readings. The Internet of Things (IoT) can store and track this information. The system provides safety against toxic gas and fire hazards. Wi-Fi networks with IEEE 802.11 wireless standards are ideal for homes and offices with little space. The primary goal of this project is to ensure the safety of the building in which this design is implemented; for example, if a fire is detected by a fire sensor, a motor pump will be triggered to disperse water as part of a sprinkler system, and if a gas sensor detects harmful gases, an exhaust dc fan will rotate to vent the area. The temperature sensor will monitor the interior temperature and activate the exhaust fan if the temperature rises beyond the set limit. All of the sensor data and the status of each linked function will be shown on an LCD, and a buzzer will sound a warning. Proteus, a professional design suite, version 8.6, may be used to simulate this proposed safety solution, and Arduino IDE, version 1.8.19, can be used to write the necessary code. A working prototype is built and put through its paces as an experiment.

Virtual Infrastructure based Routing Algorithm for IoT enabled Wireless Sensor Networks with Mobile Gateway

The IoT technology is seeking the attention of industry and researcher day by day due to its large number of applications and is off monitoring and controlling the object from the remote location. The very basic and important element of IoT is wireless sensor network where sensor nodes are attached with the object and generates the sensory data related to the object an actuator can provide the movement to the object. To make it a success reliable and efficient communication model is the main requirement. To fulfil the objective related to IoT application success in this paper a communication protocol called virtual infrastructure based routing algorithm is proposed. In this proposal a virtual cross region structure is formed in the central of the sensor network, which is called meeting region. In this meeting region the sensor nodes send their generated data and the gateway node receives those data. The problem of energy hole, the mobile gateway node is considered in this proposal. The proposed algorithm is implemented using the standard wireless sensor network simulator tool and compared the performance of the proposed algorithm with the existing algorithm based on some standard performance metrics. The simulation outcome exhibits that the proposed algorithm outperformed the existing algorithms in different performance metrics.

Sensor technology usage in orthopedic trauma

Medicine in general is quickly transitioning to a digital presence. Orthopaedic surgery is also being impacted by the tenets of digital health but there are also direct efforts with trauma surgery. Sensors are the pen and paper of the next wave of data acquisition. Orthopaedic trauma can and will be part of this new wave of medicine. Early sensor products that are now coming to market, or are in early development, will directly change the way we think about surgical diagnosis and outcomes. Sensor development for biometrics is already here. Wellness devices, pressure, temperature, and other parameters are already being measured. Data acquisition and analysis is going to be a fruitful addition to our research armamentarium with the volume of information now available. A combination of broadband internet, micro electrical machine systems (MEMS), and new wireless communication standards is driving this new wave of medicine. The Internet of Things (IoT) [1] now has a subset which is the Internet of Medical Devices [2–5] permitting a much more in-depth dive into patient procedures and outcomes. IoT devices are now being used to enable remote health monitoring, in hospital treatment, and guide therapies. This article reviews current sensor technology that looks to impact trauma care.

Human RF Electromagnetic Exposure to V2X-Communication

Abstract. In the era of automated and connected driving, more and more cars will be equipped with wireless transmission technologies such as mobile communications 4G (LTE) and 5G, WiFi, Bluetooth, and V2X. For the technical implementation of V2X-communications, different standards like cellular-V2X from the cooperation 3rd Generation Partnership Project and ITS-G5, based on the WiFi standard 802.11p from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, are under consideration. The electromagnetic environment of cars and the corresponding exposure of the general public to wireless emission will be significantly influenced by new radio technologies. Under all circumstances, it must be ensured that the exposure of the electromagnetic fields inside a car does not cause any harmful effects on humans. In order to quantitatively assess the resulting exposure, the generated exposure must be correctly recorded and evaluated according to their specific time-frequency spectra. This paper describes a new measurement procedure suitable for the V2X-standard ITS-G5 together with various exposure measurements performed in different cars with WiFi, Bluetooth and ITS-G5. In comparison of all wireless standards studied here, the V2X-service generated the highest electric field strengths inside a car, when a transmitting di-patch antenna was mounted on the windscreen inside the driver's cabin. The maximum fraction of the corresponding ICNIRP reference level amounted to 15.1 %. We conclude that the total exposure of wireless on-board automotive devices will be dominated by ITS-G5, if the transmitting antenna is located inside the passenger cabin. As V2X-communications will increasingly penetrate road traffic, the resulting exposure should be carefully monitored, in order not to exceed the corresponding reference levels for general public.

Cooperative vehicular networks: An optimal and machine learning approach

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) provide a promising technology to enhance road safety. The vehicular standard wireless access in vehicular environment (WAVE), also known as dedicated short-range communication (DSRC), can assist in reducing the number of deadly crashes. However, DSRC has a limited range. To enhance the network coverage, roadside units (RSUs) are placed along the road. However, the placement of RSUs at every instant increases the infrastructure cost. In this paper, we proposed the cooperative vehicular architecture, with network function virtualization (NFV) enabled RSU inside the mobile edge computing (MEC) unit. RSUs are only placed in the dense traffic region. We applied the Long short-term memory (LSTM) based machine-learning algorithm to predict the traffic flow based on the vehicle information table (VIT) maintained at the MEC unit. NFV is implemented at the top of RSU. Based on predicted traffic density it assists RSU to enhance its coverage range by exploiting the transmit power. Furthermore, MEC is also responsible for cooperative relay-based communication. Optimal stopping theory is modeled to select the best candidate relay node immediately. In this paper, we tested the proposed scheme in actual on-road vehicles and through simulations performed in network simulator NS-3.

The Smart Intersection: A Solution to Early-Stage Vehicle-to-Everything Deployment

Connected vehicles and connected infrastructure technology are being deployed globally. Although the connectivity technology has a demonstrated capability of aiding collision prevention, the safety benefits are not maximized because of the limited coverage during the early deployment phase. Honda’s “smart intersection” research has led the company to a pilot deployment utilizing a state-of-the-art artificial intelligence solution in infrastructure sensing technology. This sensing technology employs a vision processing system to detect and differentiate nonconnected road users, including automobiles, emergency vehicles, motorcycles, and pedestrians. The detected object types are packaged into standardized wireless vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) safety messages. These messages are transmitted from the roadside infrastructure to nearby connected vehicles. This article first discusses a few challenges associated with infrastructure sensing and collective perception and introduces techniques that ensure the infrastructure-generated V2V data transmissions are delivered in a real-time manner and with high message accuracy. We then examine the solutions through actual implementation accuracy assessments.

Virtual Infrastructure based Routing Algorithm for IoT enabled Wireless Sensor Networks with Mobile Gateway

The IoT technology is seeking the attention of industry and researcher day by day due to its large number of applications and is off monitoring and controlling the object from the remote location. The very basic and important element of IoT is wireless sensor network where sensor nodes are attached with the object and generates the sensory data related to the object an actuator can provide the movement to the object. To make it a success reliable and efficient communication model is the main requirement. To fulfil the objective related to IoT application success in this paper a communication protocol called virtual infrastructure based routing algorithm is proposed. In this proposal a virtual cross region structure is formed in the central of the sensor network, which is called meeting region. In this meeting region the sensor nodes send their generated data and the gateway node receives those data. The problem of energy hole, the mobile gateway node is considered in this proposal. The proposed algorithm is implemented using the standard wireless sensor network simulator tool and compared the performance of the proposed algorithm with the existing algorithm based on some standard performance metrics. The simulation outcome exhibits that the proposed algorithm outperformed the existing algorithms in different performance metrics.

Key Technologies, Applications and Trends of Internet of Things for Energy-Efficient 6G Wireless Communication in Smart Cities

Smart cities can be made into super-smart cities through IoT devices’ implication of energy-efficient 6G. IoT devices are expected to reach fifty billion, but limited information is available regarding the energy-efficient 6G wireless communication standard. This article highlights the key technologies, applications, and trends in the Internet of Things (IoT) for energy-efficient 6G wireless communication in smart cities. The systematic review helped to achieve the aim of the study by considering the 20 articles extracted from databases and Google that fell between 2015 and 2021 and are written in English. The findings identified that quantum communication, blockchain, visible light communication (VLC), 6G brain–computer interface (BCI), symbiotic radio, and others are the key technologies. The applications of IoT technologies and energy-efficient 6G are found in 15 Minute City, Industrial Town, Intelligent Transport systems and others. Furthermore, the trend of using 6G through IoT devices in smart cities is promising.

Efficient addressing schemes for internet of things

The internet of things (IoT) defines the connectivity of physical devices to provide the machine to machine communication. This communication is achieved through various wireless standards for sensor node connectivity. The IoT calls from the formation of various wireless sensor nodes (WSNs) in a network. The existing neighborhood discovery method had the disadvantage of time complexity to calculate the cluster distance. Our proposed method rectifies this issue and gives accurate execution time. This paper proposed mobility management system based on proxy mobile IPv6 as distributed PMIPv6 with constrained application protocol (CoAP-DPMIP) and PMIPv6 with constrained application protocol (CoAP-PMIP). It also provides the optimized transmission path to reduce the delay handover in IoT network. The PMIPv6 described the IPv6 address of mobile sensor device for efficient mobility management. The network architecture explains three protocol layers of open systems interconnection model (OSI model). The OSI layers are data link layer, network layer and transport layer. We have proposed the distance estimation algorithm for efficient data frames transmission. This paper mainly focuses the secure data transmission with minimum loss of error. The evaluation result proved that proposed technique performance with delay, energy, throughput and packet delivery ratio (PDR). Also, it measures the computational time very effectively.