Loss Of Radiation Belt Electrons Research Articles

Van Allen Probes observations of oxygen cyclotron harmonic waves in the inner magnetosphere

AbstractWaves with frequencies in the vicinity of the oxygen cyclotron frequency and its harmonics have been regularly observed on the Van Allen Probes satellites during geomagnetic storms. We focus on properties of these waves and present events from the main phase of two storms on 1 November 2012 and 17 March 2013 and associated dropouts of a few MeV electron fluxes. They are electromagnetic, in the frequency range ~0.5 to several Hz, and amplitude ~0.1 to a few nT in magnetic and ~0.1 to a few mV/m in electric field, with both the wave velocity and the Poynting vector directed almost parallel to the background magnetic field. These properties are very similar to those of electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves, which are believed to contribute to loss of ring current ions and radiation belt electrons and therefore can be also important for inner magnetosphere dynamics.

Observation of chorus waves by the Van Allen Probes: Dependence on solar wind parameters and scale size

AbstractHighly energetic electrons in the Earth's Van Allen radiation belts can cause serious damage to spacecraft electronic systems and affect the atmospheric composition if they precipitate into the upper atmosphere. Whistler mode chorus waves have attracted significant attention in recent decades for their crucial role in the acceleration and loss of energetic electrons that ultimately change the dynamics of the radiation belts. The distribution of these waves in the inner magnetosphere is commonly presented as a function of geomagnetic activity. However, geomagnetic indices are nonspecific parameters that are compiled from imperfectly covered ground based measurements. The present study uses wave data from the two Van Allen Probes to present the distribution of lower band chorus waves not only as functions of single geomagnetic index and solar wind parameters but also as functions of combined parameters. Also the current study takes advantage of the unique equatorial orbit of the Van Allen Probes to estimate the average scale size of chorus wave packets, during close separations between the two spacecraft, as a function of radial distance, magnetic latitude, and geomagnetic activity, respectively. Results show that the average scale size of chorus wave packets is approximately 1300–2300 km. The results also show that the inclusion of combined parameters can provide better representation of the chorus wave distributions in the inner magnetosphere and therefore can further improve our knowledge of the acceleration and loss of radiation belt electrons.

Observational evidence of generation mechanisms for very oblique lower band chorus using THEMIS waveform data

AbstractChorus waves are intense coherent whistler mode waves with frequency chirping which play a dual role in both loss and acceleration of radiation belt electrons in the Earth's magnetosphere. Although the generation of parallel chorus waves has been extensively studied by means of theory, simulations, and observations, the generation mechanism of very oblique chorus waves still remains a mystery. In this study, we have analyzed hundreds of very oblique discrete (rising or falling tone) lower band chorus events collected from 7 years of Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) waveform data to investigate their potential generation mechanisms. Comparisons between wave normal angles directly measured onboard THEMIS in the dawn‐day sector at L = 5–9 and inferred from theoretical models on the basis of measured wave characteristics (frequency sweep rate, mean frequency, and amplitude) show that these very oblique waves are more commonly generated through cyclotron resonance with anisotropic electron streams. However, a second generation mechanism via Landau resonance with low‐energy electron beams seems to be also operating on the nightside at L < 6.7 and at all local times at L > 8.5. Moreover, very oblique lower band chorus waves with large frequency chirping rates or small magnetic field amplitudes are more likely excited via cyclotron resonance, while waves with small frequency chirping rates or large magnetic field amplitudes are preferentially generated through Landau resonance. This comprehensive statistical study provides interesting insight into the possible generation mechanisms of very oblique lower band chorus waves in the Earth's magnetosphere.

Highly relativistic radiation belt electron acceleration, transport, and loss: Large solar storm events of March and June 2015.

Two of the largest geomagnetic storms of the last decade were witnessed in 2015. On 17 March 2015, a coronal mass ejection‐driven event occurred with a Dst (storm time ring current index) value reaching −223 nT. On 22 June 2015 another strong storm (Dst reaching −204 nT) was recorded. These two storms each produced almost total loss of radiation belt high‐energy (E ≳ 1 MeV) electron fluxes. Following the dropouts of radiation belt fluxes there were complex and rather remarkable recoveries of the electrons extending up to nearly 10 MeV in kinetic energy. The energized outer zone electrons showed a rich variety of pitch angle features including strong “butterfly” distributions with deep minima in flux at α = 90°. However, despite strong driving of outer zone earthward radial diffusion in these storms, the previously reported “impenetrable barrier” at L ≈ 2.8 was pushed inward, but not significantly breached, and no E ≳ 2.0 MeV electrons were seen to pass through the radiation belt slot region to reach the inner Van Allen zone. Overall, these intense storms show a wealth of novel features of acceleration, transport, and loss that are demonstrated in the present detailed analysis.

Nonlinearity in chorus waves during a geomagnetic storm on 1 November 2012

AbstractIn this study, we investigate the possibility of nonlinearity in chorus waves during a geomagnetic storm on 1 November 2012. The data we use were measured by the Van Allen Probe B. Wave data and plasma sheet electron data are analyzed. Chorus waves were frequently measured in the morning side during the main phase of this storm. Large‐amplitude chorus waves were seen of the order of ∼0.6 nT and >7 mV/m, which are similar to or larger than the typical ULF waves. The waves quite often consist of rising tones during the burst sampling. Since the rising tone is known as a signature of nonlinearity, a large portion of the waves are regarded as nonlinear at least during the burst sampling periods. These results underline the importance of nonlinearity in the dynamics of chorus waves. We further compare the measurement and the nonlinear theories, based on the inhomogeneity ratio, our own calculation derived from the field equation and the backward wave oscillator model. The wave quantities examined are frequency, amplitude, frequency drift rate, and duration. This type of study is useful to more deeply understand wave‐particle interactions and hence may lead to predicting the generation and loss of radiation belt electrons in the future.

Observations of coincident EMIC wave activity and duskside energetic electron precipitation on 18–19 January 2013

AbstractElectromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves have been suggested to be a cause of radiation belt electron loss to the atmosphere. Here simultaneous, magnetically conjugate measurements are presented of EMIC wave activity, measured at geosynchronous orbit and on the ground, and energetic electron precipitation, seen by the Balloon Array for Radiation belt Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL) campaign, on two consecutive days in January 2013. Multiple bursts of precipitation were observed on the duskside of the magnetosphere at the end of 18 January and again late on 19 January, concurrent with particle injections, substorm activity, and enhanced magnetospheric convection. The structure, timing, and spatial extent of the waves are compared to those of the precipitation during both days to determine when and where EMIC waves cause radiation belt electron precipitation. The conjugate measurements presented here provide observational support of the theoretical picture of duskside interaction of EMIC waves and MeV electrons leading to radiation belt loss.

Simulation of ULF wave‐modulated radiation belt electron precipitation during the 17 March 2013 storm

AbstractBalloon‐borne instruments detecting radiation belt precipitation frequently observe oscillations in the millihertz frequency range. Balloons measuring electron precipitation near the poles in the 100 keV to 2.5 MeV energy range, including the MAXIS, MINIS, and most recently the Balloon Array for Relativistic Radiation belt Electron Losses balloon experiments, have observed this modulation at ULF wave frequencies. Although ULF waves in the magnetosphere are seldom directly linked to increases in electron precipitation since their oscillation periods are much larger than the gyroperiod and the bounce period of radiation belt electrons, test particle simulations show that this interaction is possible. Three‐dimensional simulations of radiation belt electrons were performed to investigate the effect of ULF waves on precipitation. The simulations track the behavior of energetic electrons near the loss cone, using guiding center techniques, coupled with an MHD simulation of the magnetosphere, using the Lyon‐Fedder‐Mobarry code, during a coronal mass ejection (CME)‐shock event on 17 March 2013. Results indicate that ULF modulation of precipitation occurs even without the presence of electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves, which are not resolved in the MHD simulation. The arrival of a strong CME‐shock, such as the one simulated, disrupts the electric and magnetic fields in the magnetosphere and causes significant changes in both components of momentum, pitch angle, and L shell of radiation belt electrons, which may cause them to precipitate into the loss cone.

BARREL observations of an ICME‐shock impact with the magnetosphere and the resultant radiation belt electron loss

AbstractThe Balloon Array for Radiation belt Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL) mission of opportunity working in tandem with the Van Allen Probes was designed to study the loss of radiation belt electrons to the ionosphere and upper atmosphere. BARREL is also sensitive to X‐rays from other sources. During the second BARREL campaign, the Sun produced an X‐class flare followed by a solar energetic particle event (SEP) associated with the same active region. Two days later on 9 January 2014, the shock generated by the coronal mass ejection (CME) originating from the active region hits the Earth while BARREL was in a close conjunction with the Van Allen Probes. Time History Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) satellite observed the impact of the interplanetary CME (ICME) shock near the magnetopause, and the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) were on either side of the BARREL/Van Allen Probe array. The solar interplanetary magnetic field was not ideally oriented to cause a significant geomagnetic storm, but compression from the shock impact led to the loss of radiation belt electrons. We propose that an azimuthal electric field impulse generated by magnetopause compression caused inward electron transport and minimal loss. This process also drove chorus waves, which were responsible for most of the precipitation observed outside the plasmapause. Observations of hiss inside the plasmapause explain the absence of loss at this location. ULF waves were found to be correlated with the structure of the precipitation. We demonstrate how BARREL can monitor precipitation following an ICME‐shock impact at Earth in a cradle‐to‐grave view; from flare, to SEP, to electron precipitation.

Plasmatrough exohiss waves observed by Van Allen Probes: Evidence for leakage from plasmasphere and resonant scattering of radiation belt electrons

AbstractExohiss waves are whistler mode hiss observed in the plasmatrough region. We present a case study of exohiss waves and the corresponding background plasma distributions observed by the Van Allen Probes in the dayside low‐latitude region. The analysis of wave Poynting fluxes, suprathermal electron fluxes, and cold electron densities supports the scenario that exohiss leaks from the plasmasphere into the plasmatrough. Quasilinear calculations further reveal that exohiss can potentially cause the resonant scattering loss of radiation belt electrons ∼<MeV on a comparable time scale to that associated with the storm time plasmaspheric hiss. These results clearly illustrate that exohiss may need to be taken into account in future radiation belt models.

Frequency sweep rates of rising tone electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves: Comparison between nonlinear theory and Cluster observation

Resonant pitch angle scattering by electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves has been suggested to account for the rapid loss of ring current ions and radiation belt electrons. For the rising tone EMIC wave (classified as triggered EMIC emission), its frequency sweep rate strongly affects the efficiency of pitch-angle scattering. Based on the Cluster observations, we analyze three typical cases of rising tone EMIC waves. Two cases locate at the nightside (22.3 and 22.6 magnetic local time (MLT)) equatorial region and one case locates at the duskside (18MLT) higher magnetic latitude (λ = –9.3°) region. For the three cases, the time-dependent wave amplitude, cold electron density, and cold ion density ratio are derived from satellite data; while the ambient magnetic field, thermal proton perpendicular temperature, and the wave spectral can be directly provided by observation. These parameters are input into the nonlinear wave growth model to simulate the time-frequency evolutions of the rising tones. The simulated results show good agreements with the observations of the rising tones, providing further support for the previous finding that the rising tone EMIC wave is excited through the nonlinear wave growth process.

Statistical study of chorus wave distributions in the inner magnetosphere using Ae and solar wind parameters

AbstractEnergetic electrons within the Earth's radiation belts represent a serious hazard to geostationary satellites. The interactions of electrons with chorus waves play an important role in both the acceleration and loss of radiation belt electrons. The common approach is to present model wave distributions in the inner magnetosphere under different values of geomagnetic activity as expressed by the geomagnetic indices. However, it has been shown that only around 50% of geomagnetic storms increase flux of relativistic electrons at geostationary orbit while 20% causes a decrease and the remaining 30% has relatively no effect. This emphasizes the importance of including solar wind parameters such as bulk velocity (V), density (n), flow pressure (P), and the vertical interplanetary magnetic field component (Bz) that are known to be predominately effective in the control of high energy fluxes at the geostationary orbit. Therefore, in the present study the set of parameters of the wave distributions is expanded to include the solar wind parameters in addition to the geomagnetic activity. The present study examines almost 4 years (1 January 2004 to 29 September 2007) of Spatio‐Temporal Analysis of Field Fluctuation data from Double Star TC1 combined with geomagnetic indices and solar wind parameters from OMNI database in order to present a comprehensive model of wave magnetic field intensities for the chorus waves as a function of magnetic local time, L shell (L), magnetic latitude (λm), geomagnetic activity, and solar wind parameters. Generally, the results indicate that the intensity of chorus emission is not only dependent upon geomagnetic activity but also dependent on solar wind parameters with velocity and southward interplanetary magnetic field Bs (Bz < 0), evidently the most influential solar wind parameters. The largest peak chorus intensities in the order of 50 pT are observed during active conditions, high solar wind velocities, low solar wind densities, high pressures, and high Bs. The average chorus intensities are more extensive and stronger for lower band chorus than the corresponding upper band chorus.

A novel technique to construct the global distribution of whistler mode chorus wave intensity using low‐altitude POES electron data

AbstractAlthough magnetospheric chorus plays a significant role in the acceleration and loss of radiation belt electrons, its global evolution during any specific time period cannot be directly obtained by spacecraft measurements. Using the low‐altitude NOAA Polar‐orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) electron data, we develop a novel physics‐based methodology to infer the chorus wave intensity and construct its global distribution with a time resolution of less than an hour. We describe in detail how to apply the technique to satellite data by performing two representative analyses, i.e., (i) for one specific time point to visualize the estimation procedure and (ii) for a particular time period to validate the method and construct an illustrative global chorus wave model. We demonstrate that the spatiotemporal evolution of chorus intensity in the equatorial magnetosphere can be reasonably estimated from electron flux measurements made by multiple low‐altitude POES satellites with a broad coverage of L shell and magnetic local time. Such a data‐based, dynamic model of chorus waves can provide near‐real‐time wave information on a global scale for any time period where POES electron data are available. A combination of the chorus wave spatiotemporal distribution acquired using this methodology and the direct spaceborne wave measurements can be used to evaluate the quantitative scattering caused by resonant wave‐particle interactions and thus model radiation belt electron variability.

Magnetopause structure favorable for radiation belt electron loss

AbstractMagnetopause shadowing is regarded as one of the major reasons for the loss of relativistic radiation belt electrons, although this has not yet been fully validated by observations. Previous simulations on this process assumed that all of the electrons encountering the magnetopause are simply lost into the magnetosheath just as ring current ions can be and did not examine details of the particle dynamics across and inside the magnetopause which has a finite thickness. In this paper, we perform test particle orbit calculations based on a simplified one‐dimensional magnetopause model to demonstrate specifically how relativistic electrons arriving at the prenoon side of the magnetopause can be lost. The calculation results indicate that the loss process is determined by two factors: (i) a gradient of the magnetic field magnitude, B, along the magnetopause and (ii) a component of the magnetic field normal to the magnetopause. First, without a normal component of the magnetic field as in a tangential discontinuity, electrons can cross the magnetopause by the magnetic gradient drift motion due to the existence of B‐gradient along the magnetopause. The minimum kinetic energies for loss decrease with increasing B‐gradient along the magnetopause induced by the enhanced solar wind dynamic pressure. However, this process is not too strong in the sense that electrons have to drift rather a long distance along the magnetopause before entering the magnetosheath unless the B‐gradient along the magnetopause is unusually strong, or the particle energy is very high like above 3 MeV. In contrast, if a normal component of the magnetic field exists inside the magnetopause, as in a rotational discontinuity, electrons can cross the magnetopause far more easily along the guided field line inside the magnetopause. This is effective for even a very small magnitude of normal component field such as somewhat less than 1 nT regardless of its direction and for a rather low energy of particles such as 0.5 MeV. Also, the loss occurs over more than half of the pitch angle domain, i.e., in the range between ~80° and 180° or 0° and ~100°, depending on the direction of normal component. Therefore, we suggest that radiation belt electron loss by the magnetopause shadowing process can be substantial (or can be effective) when a substantial area of the magnetopause is given a finite normal magnetic field component as well as B‐gradient along the magnetopause.

Consequences of geomagnetic activity on energization and loss of radiation belt electrons by oblique chorus waves

Statistics of amplitudes and obliquity of lower band chorus whistler mode waves have been obtained from Cluster measurements in Earth's outer radiation belt and fitted as functions of L, latitude, magnetic local time, and three geomagnetic activity ranges for Dst∈[+10,−80] nT. Very oblique chorus waves have generally a much smaller average intensity than quasi‐parallel waves, especially on the nightside. Nevertheless, analytical estimates and full numerical calculations of quasi‐linear diffusion rates show that dayside very oblique waves (θ>60°) dominate pitch angle scattering of energetic electrons during moderately disturbed periods. As geomagnetic activity increases, leading to higher wave amplitudes, electron lifetimes are only slightly reduced, due to a decrease of the wave obliquity probably related to Landau damping by stronger incoming fluxes from the plasma sheet. As a result, electron energization by chorus waves for Dst>−80 nT generally occurs in a loss‐dominated regime in which energization increases at lower L. However, at L≥6 the most disturbed periods (Dst<−40 nT) produce a stronger energization independent of losses. Double‐belt structures may therefore arise when Dst<−40 nT, with two peaks of energization located just outside the plasmapause and at L∼6. The variability of lower band chorus wave obliquity with geomagnetic activity could actually account for some part of the observed variability of energization and loss in the outer belt. It is also suggested that quasi‐linear pitch angle diffusion by very oblique waves together with energy diffusion by parallel waves might contribute to the steep wave growth observed in the day sector between the equator and 25°.

Simulation of the energy distribution of relativistic electron precipitation caused by quasi-linear interactions with EMIC waves.

[1]Previous studies on electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves as a possible cause of relativistic electron precipitation (REP) mainly focus on the time evolution of the trapped electron flux. However, directly measured by balloons and many satellites is the precipitating flux as well as its dependence on both time and energy. Therefore, to better understand whether pitch angle scattering by EMIC waves is an important radiation belt electron loss mechanism and whether quasi-linear theory is a sufficient theoretical treatment, we simulate the quasi-linear wave-particle interactions for a range of parameters and generate energy spectra, laying the foundation for modeling specific events that can be compared with balloon and spacecraft observations. We show that the REP energy spectrum has a peaked structure, with a lower cutoff at the minimum resonant energy. The peak moves with time toward higher energies and the spectrum flattens. The precipitating flux, on the other hand, first rapidly increases and then gradually decreases. We also show that increasing wave frequency can lead to the occurrence of a second peak. In both single- and double-peak cases, increasing wave frequency, cold plasma density or decreasing background magnetic field strength lowers the energies of the peak(s) and causes the precipitation to increase at low energies and decrease at high energies at the start of the precipitation.

Determining the spectra of radiation belt electron losses: Fitting DEMETER electron flux observations for typical and storm times

The energy spectra of energetic electron precipitation from the radiation belts are studied in order to improve our understanding of the influence of radiation belt processes. The Detection of Electromagnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions (DEMETER) microsatellite electron flux instrument is comparatively unusual in that it has very high energy resolution (128 channels with 17.9 keV widths in normal survey mode), which lends itself to this type of spectral analysis. Here electron spectra from DEMETER have been analyzed from all six years of its operation, and three fit types (power law, exponential, and kappa‐type) have been applied to the precipitating flux observations. We show that the power law fit consistently provides the best representation of the flux and that the kappa‐type is rarely valid. We also provide estimated uncertainties in the flux for this instrument as a function of energy. Average power law gradients for nontrapped particles have been determined for geomagnetically nondisturbed periods to get a typical global behavior of the spectra in the inner radiation belt, slot region, and outer radiation belt. Power law spectral gradients in the outer belt are typically −2.5 during quiet periods, changing to a softer spectrum of ∼−3.5 during geomagnetic storms. The inner belt does the opposite, hardening from −4 during quiet times to ∼−3 during storms. Typical outer belt e‐folding values are ∼200 keV, dropping to ∼150 keV during geomagnetic storms, while the inner belt e‐folding values change from ∼120 keV to >200 keV. Analysis of geomagnetic storm periods show that the precipitating flux enhancements evident from such storms take approximately 13 days to return to normal values for the outer belt and slot region and approximately 10 days for the inner belt.

Latitudinal dependence of nonlinear interaction between electromagnetic ion cyclotron wave and radiation belt relativistic electrons

Electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves are long suggested to account for the rapid loss of radiation belt relativistic electrons. Here we perform both theoretical analysis and numerical simulation to comprehensively investigate the nonlinear interaction between EMIC wave and relativistic electrons. In particular, we emphasize the dependence of nonlinear processes on the electron initial latitude. The nonlinear phase trapping yields negative equatorial pitch angle transport, with efficiency varying over the electron initial latitude, implying that it can increase the loss rate predicted by quasilinear theory. The nonlinear channel effect phase bunching produces positive equatorial pitch angle transport, less dependent on the electron initial latitude, suggesting that it can decrease the loss rate predicted by quasilinear theory. The nonlinear cluster effect phase bunching alternately causes positive and negative equatorial pitch angle transport, quasi‐periodically dependent on the electron initial latitude, suggesting that it can either decrease or increase the loss rate predicted by the quasilinear theory. Such latitudinal dependence of nonlinear processes should be taken into account in the evaluation of radiation belt electron loss rate driven by EMIC waves.

EMIC waves growth and guiding in the presence of cold plasma density irregularities

Intense electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves are observed within plasmaspheric plumes during geomagnetic storms and are believed to be a significant driver of loss of both ring current protons and radiation belt electrons. In this study, we use ray tracing together with path‐integrated linear growth calculations to analyze the amplification and propagation of EMIC waves within cold plasma density irregularities characteristic of the plasmaspheric plume. All waves are launched at the equator in the range of L = 5 to 7, and wave amplification is analyzed as a function of frequency and initial wave normal angle. These results are compared to a baseline case without irregularities, which show that guiding is possible for irregularity sizes on the order of the EMIC wavelength. Results suggest that typical structures with density levels above and below the average value can result in both areas of increased as well as suppressed wave activity.

Gyroresonant interactions between the radiation belt electrons and whistler mode chorus waves in the radiation environments of Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn: A comparative study

In the current study we perform a comparative analysis of the gyroresonant interactions of whistler mode waves with radiation belt electrons in the magnetospheres of Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn. Our primary goal is to evaluate the effect of resonant wave‐particle interactions with chorus waves and determine whether chorus waves can produce net acceleration or net loss of radiation belt electrons on the outer planets. The ratio of plasma frequency to gyrofrequency is a key parameter that determines the efficiency of the pitch angle and energy resonant scattering. We present a comparison of statistical maps of the ratio of plasma frequency to gyrofrequency for Jupiter, Saturn and Earth in terms of radial distance and latitude. Preliminary maps of the plasma frequency to gyrofrequency ratio and 2D simulations of pitch angle and energy diffusion using the Versatile Electron Radiation Belt (VERB) indicate that the Kronian plasma environment is not likely to support as efficient gyroresonant interactions with whistler mode chorus waves as in the Terrestrial or Jovian environments. Inefficiency of the local acceleration by whistler mode waves in the Kronian environment raises important questions about the origin of the relativistic electrons in the Saturn's radiation belts. Two‐dimensional diffusive simulations of local acceleration and loss to the atmosphere using the VERB code confirm previous suggestions that the acceleration of electrons may be very efficient in the outer radiation belt of Jupiter. However, sensitivity simulations also show that the result of the competition between acceleration and loss in the Jupiter's magnetosphere strongly depends on the currently unknown latitudinal distribution of chorus waves that will be provided by the upcoming Juno mission. If waves extend to high latitudes, it is likely that the loss rates due to whistler mode waves will exceed energization rates.

Global model of lower band and upper band chorus from multiple satellite observations

Gyroresonant wave particle interactions with whistler mode chorus play a fundamental role in the dynamics of the Earth's radiation belts and inner magnetosphere, affecting both the acceleration and loss of radiation belt electrons. Knowledge of the variability of chorus wave power as a function of both spatial location and geomagnetic activity, required for the computation of pitch angle and energy diffusion rates, is thus a critical input for global radiation belt models. Here we present a global model of lower band (0.1fce < f < 0.5fce) and upper band (0.5fce < f < fce) chorus, where fce is the local electron gyrofrequency, using data from five satellites, extending the coverage and improving the statistics of existing models. From the plasmapause out to L* = 10 the chorus emissions are found to be largely substorm dependent with the largest intensities being seen during active conditions. Equatorial lower band chorus is strongest during active conditions with peak intensities of the order 2000 pT2 in the region 4 < L* < 9 between 2300 and 1200 MLT. Equatorial upper band chorus is both weaker and less extensive with peak intensities of the order a few hundred pT2 during active conditions between 2300 and 1100 MLT from L* = 3 to L* = 7. Moving away from the equator midlatitude chorus is strongest in the lower band during active conditions with peak intensities of the order 2000 pT2 in the region 4 < L* < 9 but is restricted to the dayside between 0700 and 1400 MLT.