Radial Tire Research Articles

Dynamic Experiment of Parts of Car Tyres

The paper deals with method for dynamic experiment of parts of car radial tyres. The aim of research work of authors is also propose and evaluate the experimental procedures for cyclic loading of selected parts of tyres with textile reinforcement and rubber matrix. The universal testing device Autograph AG-X plus 5kN – Schimadzu with video-extensometer with test mode Control of software Trapenzium X was used for experiments. The five cycle loop were used. Every cycle loop consisted of five cycles, every cycle is defined as loading to certain percent of elongation and unloading to certain percent of elongation. The fifth cycle can be used as steady state for comparison of behaviour between specimens with different cord angle. Knowledge about characteristics of dynamic experiment such as cyclic tensile loading is necessary for the verification analysis between experiments and computational modeling of tyres by FEA. Also the determination of material parameters from experimental data will be used as input data to computational modeling of tyres. The results will be also applied in the case of the composites with the woven and nonwoven textile reinforcement and moreover, these results can be used in such conditions where the mentioned composites are exposed to the cyclic loading at unsteady temperature: tyre casing, conveyor belts, etc.

Finite Element Modeling with Embed Rebar Elements and Steady State Rolling Analysis for Rolling Resistance Test of Pneumatic Tire

Finite element model of tire rolling resistance test on the drum was developed using 3D steady state rolling analysis coupling with pre-inflation of 2D axisymmetric tire analysis. The complex components of the radial tires composing tread, sidewall, ply layers, steel belts, and lead wires were modeled using rebar elements which were embed into the rubber element using the tying equation. The Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic constitutive model was employed to describe the large deformation behavior of tread and sidewall, while other components such as plies, steel belts and bead wires were assigned the linear isotropic material. The tire rolling resistance system was modeled by inflation of slick tire and compression on the drum for the footprint analysis regarding the rolling resistance test. The tire’s steady state characteristics such as footprint contact pressure, rolling resistance force, and time response characteristic of tires were predicted instead the experiment of the prototype.

Impact of contact stress distribution on skid resistance of asphalt pavements

In order to obtain the actual contact area and stress distribution between tire and asphalt pavement, a pressure-sensitive film was conducted and adopted for measuring radial tire contact stress. In this study, the fractal dimension of the fracture surface was estimated to describe the surface roughness of four types of track boards in terms of utilizing the improved projective covering method. The results showed that Weibull distributions were applicable to describing the contact stress distribution between tire and pavement, and the Weibull expectation could effectively characterize the stress level. In addition, it was found that greater stress expectations indicated more significant stress concentration effects on the pavement surface. The stress distribution increased with an increase of pavement texture depth or tire load or a decrease of the tire inflation pressure. The influence of pavement roughness and tire load was more significant than tire inflation pressure on the stress concentration. Compared to the general pavement texture depth (sand patch method), the surface fractal dimension adequately described the surface roughness including macro-texture and micro-texture, and it was directly affected by the proportion of coarse aggregate. The pavement skid-resistance performance was mainly influenced by its high stress regions (>1.8MPa) at the top of asperities. The skid-resistance performance of asphalt pavement was proved to be better with a high-level average effective stress.

Modal analysis on tire with respect to different parameters

This paper presents experimental modal analysis of non-rotating tires under different boundary conditions. A test rig with four guides in vertical (radial) direction and two guides in axial direction was designed to support the tire-rim assembly with a free support. The setup permits to carry out the experiments on the grounded supported tire-rim assembly while changing the value of the static load acting on the wheel axis. Under static load condition, it is found that, tire deflection depends on the applied static radial force in a hysteresis manner and a third-order polynomial was used to fit the data during loading and unloading conditions. The relationship between static stiffness in radial direction and tire deflection is nonlinear and depends on loading/unloading conditions for different tire pressures. The response of the tire is quite similar to the response of viscously damped mass system for impulse force which is provided by an impact hammer. The results show that the system modal parameters can be obtained respective of loading or unloading conditions with a maximum difference of 1.992% for frequency values and 3.66% for damping values. This study has a practical value for the description of mechanical properties of tires.

Research on the Passenger Car Tire Retreading Technology and Processing

Tire retreading refers to the waste tire repair, polishing and gluing, pressing process, and then curing,which restore its use value. So far it is one of the most direct and most effective and the most economic way of the utilization of waste tire. Normally, because of the high profit, the retreading of truck tire and engineering tire had received much attention, while that of passenger car tire had been ignored. However, as the number of car has been increasing for many years, the passenger tire retreading is urgently needed. In this article, after the further study of related retreading theory, it is determined by using the prevulcanization retreading technology for renovation of radial tire. The renovation process including the carcass of tire inspection, repair, polishing, brush glue, tread molding (including post pad, pre vulcanized tread and pressed), vulcanization, final inspection. And the related equipment has been developed for the passenger tire retreading molding, include lifting inspection machine, model profile grinding machine, winding machine, model setting vulcanizing machine and tread of orientation of short fiber extrusion and other special equipment. This research solved the problem of backward technology, the short service life and poor quality.

Vibration performance analysis of vehicle with the non-pneumatic new mechanical elastic wheel in the impulse input experiment

A non-pneumatic tire appears to have advantages over the conventional pneumatic tire in terms of flat proof and maintenance free. A mechanical elastic wheel (MEW) with a non-pneumatic elastic outer ring which functions as the air of the pneumatic tire was presented. The structure of MEW is non-inflatable integrated configuration and the effect of hinges is accounted for only in tension. To establish finite element model of MEW, various nonlinear factors, such as the geometrical nonlinearity, material nonlinearity and contact nonlinearity, were considered. Load characteristic test was conducted by tyre dynamic test-bed to obtain force-deflection curves. And the validity of the finite element model was validated through load characteristic test. The vehicle vibration performance respectively based on the MEW and the radial tire was compatative studied under pulse input experiment conditions. The result showed that the vehicle concluding the new mechanical elastic wheel met the vibration performance requirements and vibration performance regularity of pneumatic tire. The results could be used as the thesis reference for the improvement of new mechanical elastic wheel.

BEM-FEM Model for Truck Tire-Pavement Interaction Noise Prediction

ABSTRACT Tire-pavement interaction noise has become the dominant source of traffic noise for vehicular speeds greater than 30 mph, as the automotive engine and exhaust system noise are being effectively controlled. Compared with field testing for tire-pavement sound pressure measurement, this study develops an efficient boundary element method (BEM)/finite element method (FEM) model for tire-pavement interaction noise prediction for typical truck tires. The tire structure and modal characteristics of a semisteel radial truck tire are computed using the FEM, and the solution for the radiation acoustic fields caused by the vibration under harmonic excitations is based on the BEM. Application of this model is verified for simulation of the noise reduction performance of porous asphalt concrete with different porosity values. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of tire-pavement interaction noise prediction with the BEM/FEM model. Further research will be conducted with the noise excitation resulting from pavement surface texture profiles.

Non-natural equilibrium contour design for radial tire and its influence on tire performance

Two types of radial tire 11.00R20 and 385/65R22.5 are chosen as the research objects, and their carcass contours are redesigned by using Sakai Hideo’s, Frank’s and the new non-natural equilibrium contour design theories, which were based on analyzing the current non-equilibrium contour design theories of radial tire. Then the tire wear, rolling resistance and grip performance of the two radial tires designed by different non-natural equilibrium contour design theories are comprehensively analyzed with the finite element software ABAQUS. The results show that Frank’s contour design theory can reduce tire wear; the new non-natural equilibrium contour design theory can enhance tire wear, rolling resistance performance, etc. It is also found that the tire carcass contour has great influence on tire performance, especially on the tire rolling resistance. The new non-natural equilibrium contour theory provides a guidance to reduce the tire rolling resistance, and it can break through the target conflicts in tire performance. The tire with the new non-natural equilibrium carcass contour can enhance its comprehensive performance.

Life cycle assessment of Chinese radial passenger vehicle tire

We evaluated and quantified the environmental impact of a radial tire product for passenger vehicles throughout the product’s life cycle to identify key stages that contribute to the overall environmental burden and to find ways to reduce these burdens effectively. The study covers all relevant life cycle stages, from the acquisition of raw materials to the production, use, and end of life. Data collected onsite in 2014 by one of the largest Chinese tire companies were used in the assessment. The evaluation is presented in terms of individual impact category according to the CML model. Five impact categories (i.e., global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), photochemical oxidant creation potential (POCP), eutrophication potential (EP), and human toxicity potential (HTP)) were considered. The research was conducted in accordance with the ISO 14040/14044 standards. Fuel (gasoline) consumption represents an important contribution to most impact categories, including the GWP, AP, POCP, and EP, during the use stage. The largest contributor to the HTP category is raw material acquisition, mainly because of the impact of the production of organic chemicals. In the end-of-life stage, assuming that 100 % of used tires are collected and recycled to produce reclaimed rubber, the GWP, EP, and HTP contributions are negative, whereas those to the AP and POCP are positive. During the raw material acquisition stage, natural rubber, synthetic rubber, carbon black, and organic chemicals represent the largest contribution to the environmental impact categories. During the production stage, the compound blending process is the largest contributor to the AP and POCP, whereas vulcanizing and testing contribute most to the GWP, EP, and HTP. Vehicle fuel consumption and its proportion consumed by the tires during the use stage are key factors that contribute to environmental impact during tire life. Further investigations should be conducted to decrease the impact of these factors and improve the environmental performance of tire products.

Tire–Pavement Contact Stress with 3D Finite-Element Model—Part 1: Semi-Steel Radial Tires on Light Vehicles

Abstract Vehicles pass their loads through tires onto pavements. Traditionally, the vertical contact pressure is assumed to uniformly distribute in a rectangle or circular area, whereas the shear contact pressure is ignored in pavement design. Experiments have demonstrated that the interaction between the tire and the pavement surface is very complicated. The contact area is not a regular shape and the distribution of contact pressure is not uniform. However, experimental approaches to measure contact pressure are usually time and energy consuming, whereas the results are subject to errors introduced by measurement sensors. On the other hand, numerical simulation can describe the interaction between tire and pavement surface under all circumstances, such as various driving conditions, different tread types, and so on. In this paper, a three-dimensional finite-element model for tires was developed. The model was validated by the static test data. Then the interactions of different tires with pavement were analyzed, including the vertical and shear contact-pressure distributions on tires and on pavement surfaces. The influences of pavement friction and load level on the contact-pressure distributions of tires and pavement were investigated as well. It was found that vertical and shear contact pressures on tires and pavement were quite different when the type of tire or the friction changed. The contact-pressure distribution was found not uniform and the shape of contact area changed as the load level varied. The complicated interactions between different tires and pavement indicate that sophisticated tire models are necessary to obtain more accurate pavement responses.

Prediction of Burst Pressure of a Radial Truck Tire Using Finite Element Analysis

This paper is concerned with the numerical prediction of the burst pressure of a radial truck tire. Even though relatively rare, the tire fracture or failure brings up a big accident. Especially, the tire burst or rupture is a rapid loss of inflation pressure of a truck and bus tire leading to an explosion. The tire burst pressure, under this extreme loading condition, can be predicted by identifying the pressure at which the cord breaking force of the composite materials is attained. Recently, the use of finite element analysis in tire optimal design has become widely popular. In order to determine the burst pressure of a radial truck tire, an axisymmetric finite element model has been developed using a commercial finite element code with rebar element. The numerical result shows that the bead wire among the various layers modeled the rebar element breaks off first in the radial truck tire. The finite element modeling with the rebar element on the bead wire of a radial truck tire is able to well predict the tire burst pressure identifying the pressure at which the breaking force of steel bead wires is reached. The model predictions of tire burst pressure should be correlated with test data, in which case the tire is hydro-tested to destruction. The effect of the design change with the different bead structure on the tire burst pressure is discussed.

Development of a rolling truck tyre model using an automatic model regeneration algorithm

A three-dimensional finite element model of a rolling radial-ply truck tyre is developed to predict its vertical and cornering properties at relatively high speeds. The model includes a detailed representation of the tyre complex geometry and multi-layered composite structure including the carcass and belt plies, bead fillers and tread. LS-DYNA, a nonlinear finite element code, is used as the simulation tool. An algorithm is developed for efficient formulation of the model for parametric analyses. The validity of the proposed tyre model is demonstrated by comparing the predicted load-deflection, cornering and free vertical vibration characteristics with the reported experimental data. The simulation results revealed robust behaviour of the tyre model up to rolling speeds of 100 km/h. The verified tyre model is subsequently employed to study the influences of various operating parameters, namely, the inflation pressure, vertical load, rolling speed and road friction on the tyre vertical and cornering properties.

Modal analysis of a rolling truck tyre subjected to inflation pressure and vertical deflection

Modal analysis of a rolling truck tyre under inflation pressure and vertical deflection is conducted to determine its natural frequencies and mode shapes. A 3-D finite element model of a radial-ply truck tyre is used considering its multi-layered composite structure. The nonlinear effects of the inflation pressure, vertical load and rolling speed are incorporated in the analysis through an explicit dynamic simulation to determine the stress state throughout the tyre at instants when the modal characteristics are desired. The eigenvalues are subsequently extracted at three key moments when the tyre reaches the steady state after application of the inflation pressure, vertical deflection and rolling speed. For a deflected tyre, the conjugate mode frequencies, being identical for an inflated tyre, diverged to two different frequencies with one being lower and the other higher than the corresponding frequency of the tyre under inflation alone. The influences of the inflation pressure, vertical load and rolling speed on tyre natural frequencies are obtained through the development of a computationally efficient algorithm to automate the tyre model reformulations for parametric studies.

Replacement of Belt Structure for FEA of Tire

The paper deals with computational modeling of radial tire for cars. The authors used FEA (Finite Element Analysis) utilizing program ANSYS. The authors are oriented not only to the strain-stress analyses of tire. In relation to the tire computational models, the composite structure parts (textile carcass, steel-cord belt and textile belt) cannot be implemented up to the level of reinforcing cords because of the time difficulty as well as the large number of the finite elements. The composite structure parts are partially replaced with some specified stiffness. The paper describes the different ways of replacement of structure represented by the steel-cord belt. These replacements are used for FEA of tire.

Coupled Thermomechanical Computational Solutions for Stationary and Dynamics Rocking of all-metal Steel Belted Tyres

All-metal steel belted radial tyres (AMSBRT) for opencast handler super heavy trucks such as Caterpillar, Komatsu, Belaz and others are the basis of productivity and safety of automobile equipment work in mining industry. Supercomputer modelling of thermomechanical tyres states is proposed and main features of computational solutions are discussed. Computational experiments results match with spin test results with acceptable engineering accuracy. So it is possible to predict heat generation in any rubber points and also in metal cord threads during one or more wheel revolution under load.

Investigation and modeling of the tractive performance of radial tires using off-road vehicles

In order to utilize energy in the most efficient way in off-road vehicles, soil–wheel interaction should be investigated carefully since considerable amount of energy is lost due to tractive performance. In this study, the effects of radial tire on tractive performance at three different tire lug heights, axle loads and inflation pressures were experimentally determined. To obtain sufficient performance data, a new single wheel tester was designed and manufactured. Prior to experiments, properties of stubble field were determined. The tractive efficiency was found to increase with increasing dynamic axle load while decreasing with increasing tire inflation pressure. Dynamic axle load of the tire was the major contributory factor in the traction performance as compared with other independent variables. Seven different Artificial Neural Network and two types of Support Vector Regression models have been designed to predict the tractive efficiency. To evaluate the success of system, various statistical measures such as Mean Absolute Error, Root Mean Squared Error and Coefficient Determination have been used. The results show that the Artificial Neural Network model trained using Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm has produced more accurate results.

Numerical and experimental studies of a radial truck tire with tread pattern

A three-dimensional nonlinear finite element tire model with detailed tread pattern and a smooth tread tire model for comparison are constructed. The tire–rim and tire–road interactions are considered in these tire models. The static vertical loading and rolling procedures of the tire are simulated by using the ABAQUS code. Presented in this paper are the relationship between vertical loading and tire deflection, and the contact footprints, along with the pressure distribution achieved by the pressure-sensing pad experiment and the finite element tire modeling. The predicted results via the modeling method proposed in this study are in good agreement with experiments. In addition, the forces of belts, the deformation and strain energy density of tread blocks obtained from the tire model are also presented when the tire is in braking and traction rolling situations. The reliability of the proposed tire modeling methodology is validated.

The Organic–Aqueous Extraction of Natural Eucommia ulmoides Rubber and Its Properties and Application in Car Radial Tires

ABSTRACTThis paper discusses a fast, efficient, green extraction method of natural Eucommia ulmoides rubber. In the traditional extracting methods, the Eucommia leaves or barks were dissolved in a medium or low polarity solvents, such as chloroform and toluene. However, in this process not only huge amounts of solvent were consumed but also the reversed‐phase solvent, such as ethanol and methanol, was needed to separate Eucommia rubber in a solid form from the solution. To solve these problems, we used the hydrophilicity of natural Eucommia rubber plant, using petroleum ether solution and alternating hot and cold water, to extract natural E. ulmoides rubber. This method could simplify the extraction process of E. ulmoides, reduce the amount of organic solvent used in the process of extraction, and save the extraction cost. The extracted E. ulmoides rubber was characterized, and the results showed that the molecular weight of E. ulmoides pretreated by the mechanical method was about 30 kDa and relatively narrow polydispersity. We also used the extracted Eucommia rubber in tread designing of car radial tires; the result showed that the mechanical properties of the rubber samples with Eucommia rubber increased compared with those without Eucommia rubber.

Static tests of constructive tires using hydraulic press on the soil

ABSTRACT The power consumption and load capacity of agricultural machines have grown and the effects of pressure on the soil by tires have been still little investigated. In concern with sustainable development, the relationship machine-tire-soil must be in balance to give more consistency on the best use of tires for a given load. This study aimed to evaluate four tires of two constructive types, the bias belted tires and radial tires, both with respective rim diameters of 22.5 and 26.5 inches with variables measuring the footprint, elastic deformation, sinkage and resistance to penetration. A hydraulic press with an attachment shaft for tire mounting and a box of soil in which the tire has been imposed on a load of 53.00 kN using nominal pressures recommended by the tire manufacturer. The radial construction tire with rim diameter of 26.5 inches obtained less sinkage and resistance to penetration; however, greater elastic deformation and footprint compared to other tires. The bias-belted tire with 22.5-inch rim presented the highest resistance to penetration and the lowest elastic deformation.

Effect of Measurement Frequency and Test Duration on the Inflation Pressure Loss Rate of Radial Medium Truck Tires

ABSTRACT The inflation pressure loss rate (IPLR) of a tire has been a standard test method for several decades and is used to determine the rate at which a tire will lose pressure. Following these procedures, the rate of pressure loss is obtained and expressed numerically as the percentage of loss per month. This is an investigation of two experimental variables: (1) the frequency at which the inflation pressure is measured on a daily basis, and (2) the duration of the entire test. The measurement frequency means how many data points are recorded during a 24-hour period. For example, one study may collect data as infrequently as once per day by manually reading a pressure gauge every 24 hours. Alternatively, another study may collect data electronically with pressure transducers capable of transmitting large numbers of data points over short preset periods, then numerically averaging those data into a single 24-hour daily measurement. After a 21-day period to equilibrate the newly inflated tire, the test duration can range from 90 to 180 days but is allowed to be shortened when using electronic-pressure monitoring. This is a study of data-collection frequency and duration in a newly commissioned tire IPLR laboratory at Akron Rubber Development Laboratory, Inc (ARDL). It was constructed to have excellent temperature control and was equipped with 24 pressure-sensitive transducers with data being directly transmitted into a dedicated computer where the ASTM F1112 equations were applied. The present study includes data measurements from 56 radial medium truck tires manufactured by different companies. Results were obtained by averaging data collected four times per hour over a test duration of 90 days but were then recalculated using 60, 45, or 30 days of data to establish the feasibility of using a shorter testing time.