Radar Altimeter Data Research Articles

A Matching Method for Establishing Correspondence Between Satellite Radar Altimeter Data and Transponder Data Generated During Calibration

This letter presents a method for matching satellite radar altimeter data and transponder data generated during in situ calibration. The transponder generates a measurement error when it measures the arrival time of the altimeter's transmitted signal and embeds the error in both the transponder's recorded data and the altimeter's recorded data. The second-order finite difference sequence of this error sequence can be extracted from the raw data; thus, the correspondence between two identical but mismatched second-order difference sequences can be uniquely established. The measurement error is utilized, and a data matching method that can uniquely establish the correspondence between the altimeter's recorded data sequence and the transponder's recorded data sequence is presented. This postprocessing method does not increase the real-time signal processing workload of the transponder. Furthermore, the principles underlying this method can be used for any transponder that can adjust the response signal delay during calibration.

Spatial structure of directional wave spectra in hurricanes

The spatial structure of the wave field during hurricane conditions is studied using the National Data Buoy Center directional wave buoy data set from the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. The buoy information, comprising the directional wave spectra during the passage of several hurricanes, was referenced to the center of the hurricane using the path of the hurricane, the propagation velocity, and the radius of the maximum winds. The directional wave spectra were partitioned into their main components to quantify the energy corresponding to the observed wave systems and to distinguish between wind-sea and swell. The findings are consistent with those found using remote sensing data (e.g., Scanning Radar Altimeter data). Based on the previous work, the highest waves are found in the right forward quadrant of the hurricane, where the spectral shape tends to become uni-modal, in the vicinity of the region of maximum winds. More complex spectral shapes are observed in distant regions at the front of and in the rear quadrants of the hurricane, where there is a tendency of the spectra to become bi- and tri-modal. The dominant waves generally propagate at significant angles to the wind direction, except in the regions next to the maximum winds of the right quadrants. Evidence of waves generated by concentric eyewalls associated with secondary maximum winds was also found. The frequency spectra display some of the characteristics of the JONSWAP spectrum adjusted by Young (J Geophys Res 111:8020, 2006); however, at the spectral peak, the similarity with the Pierson–Moskowitz spectrum is clear. These results establish the basis for the use in assessing the ability of numerical models to simulate the wave field in hurricanes.

Increased ice losses from Antarctica detected by CryoSat-2

We use 3 years of Cryosat-2 radar altimeter data to develop the first comprehensive assessment of Antarctic ice sheet elevation change. This new data set provides near-continuous (96%) coverage of the entire continent, extending to within 215 km of the South Pole and leading to a fivefold increase in the sampling of coastal regions where the vast majority of all ice losses occur. Between 2010 and 2013, West Antarctica, East Antarctica, and the Antarctic Peninsula changed in mass by −134 ± 27, −3 ± 36, and −23 ± 18 Gt yr−1, respectively. In West Antarctica, signals of imbalance are present in areas that were poorly surveyed by past missions, contributing additional losses that bring altimeter observations closer to estimates based on other geodetic techniques. However, the average rate of ice thinning in West Antarctica has also continued to rise, and mass losses from this sector are now 31% greater than over the period 2005–2010.

Toward Improved Estimation of the Dynamic Topography and Ocean Circulation in the High Latitude and Arctic Ocean: The Importance of GOCE

The Arctic plays a fundamental role in the climate system and shows significant sensitivity to anthropogenic climate forcing and the ongoing climate change. Accelerated changes in the Arctic are already observed, including elevated air and ocean temperatures, declines of the summer sea ice extent and sea ice thickness influencing the albedo and CO2 exchange, melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet and increased thawing of surrounding permafrost regions. In turn, the hydrological cycle in the high latitude and Arctic is expected to undergo changes although to date it is challenging to accurately quantify this. Moreover, changes in the temperature and salinity of surface waters in the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas may also influence the flow of dense water through the Denmark Strait, which are found to be a precursor for changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation with a lead time of around 10 years (Hawkins and Sutton in Geophys Res Lett 35:L11603, 2008). Evidently changes in the Arctic and surrounding seas have far reaching influences on regional and global environment and climate variability, thus emphasizing the need for advanced quantitative understanding of the ocean circulation and transport variability in the high latitude and Arctic Ocean. In this respect, this study combines in situ hydrographical data, surface drifter data and direct current meter measurements, with coupled sea ice–ocean models, radar altimeter data and the latest GOCE-based geoid in order to estimate and assess the quality, usefulness and validity of the new GOCE-derived mean dynamic topography for studies of the ocean circulation and transport estimates in the Nordic Seas and Arctic Ocean.

Boundary conditions of an active West Antarctic subglacial lake: implications for storage of water beneath the ice sheet

Abstract. Repeat-pass ICESat altimetry has revealed 124 discrete surface height changes across the Antarctic Ice Sheet, interpreted to be caused by subglacial lake discharges (surface lowering) and inputs (surface uplift). Few of these active lakes have been confirmed by radio-echo sounding (RES) despite several attempts (notable exceptions are Lake Whillans and three in the Adventure Subglacial Trench). Here we present targeted RES and radar altimeter data from an "active lake" location within the upstream Institute Ice Stream, into which at least 0.12 km3 of water was previously calculated to have flowed between October 2003 and February 2008. We use a series of transects to establish an accurate depiction of the influences of bed topography and ice surface elevation on water storage potential. The location of surface height change is downstream of a subglacial hill on the flank of a distinct topographic hollow, where RES reveals no obvious evidence for deep (> 10 m) water. The regional hydropotential reveals a sink coincident with the surface change, however. Governed by the location of the hydrological sink, basal water will likely "drape" over topography in a manner dissimilar to subglacial lakes where flat strong specular RES reflections are measured. The inability of RES to detect the active lake means that more of the Antarctic ice sheet bed may contain stored water than is currently appreciated. Variation in ice surface elevation data sets leads to significant alteration in calculations of the local flow of basal water indicating the value of, and need for, high-resolution altimetry data in both space and time to establish and characterise subglacial hydrological processes.

Spatio-temporal analysis of surface elevation changes in Pine Island Glacier, Antarctica, from ICESat GLAS data and ERS-1 radar altimeter data

AbstractCharacterized by fast movement, low surface slope and grounding below sea level, Pine Island Glacier (PIG) plays an important role in the stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet. In previous work, we reported that the spatial distribution of 1995–2003 surface lowering in PIG suggests an attribution of changes to an internally forced process in the glacier. Other work associates changes in PIG entirely with processes in its ice shelf. Here time series of maps of surface elevation change in PIG and its ice shelf are derived from geostatistical analysis of ICESat GLAS and ERS-1 radar altimeter data. Based on spatio-temporal analysis of 1995–2007 elevation change, we discuss indications of processes that initiate from changes in the ice shelf versus processes that start internally in the glacier. Thinning rates continued to increase after 2003, regionally to >15 m a–1. The initiation of acceleration occurred in the interior of the ice stream, while in later years largest elevation loss was driven by changes in the ice shelf and upward propagation. By 2006, the region of thinning had expanded up-glacier beyond the initial areas of surface lowering to 100 km above the hinge line. More than one process causes dynamically complex changes in PIG.

Waveform classification of airborne synthetic aperture radar altimeter over Arctic sea ice

Abstract. Sea ice thickness is one of the most sensitive variables in the Arctic climate system. In order to quantify changes in sea ice thickness, CryoSat-2 was launched in 2010 carrying a Ku-band radar altimeter (SIRAL) designed to measure sea ice freeboard with a few centimeters accuracy. The instrument uses the synthetic aperture radar technique providing signals with a resolution of about 300 m along track. In this study, airborne Ku-band radar altimeter data over different sea ice types have been analyzed. A set of parameters has been defined to characterize the differences in strength and width of the returned power waveforms. With a Bayesian-based method, it is possible to classify about 80% of the waveforms from three parameters: maximum of the returned power waveform, the trailing edge width and pulse peakiness. Furthermore, the maximum of the power waveform can be used to reduce the number of false detections of leads, compared to the widely used pulse peakiness parameter. For the pulse peakiness the false classification rate is 12.6% while for the power maximum it is reduced to 6.5%. The ability to distinguish between different ice types and leads allows us to improve the freeboard retrieval and the conversion from freeboard into sea ice thickness, where surface type dependent values for the sea ice density and snow load can be used.

Ocean–wave coupled modeling in COAMPS-TC: A study of Hurricane Ivan (2004)

Tropical cyclone ocean–wave model interactions are examined using an ESMF – (Earth System Modeling Framework) based tropical cyclone (TC) version of the Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS®1COAMPS® is a registered trademark of the Naval Research Laboratory.1). This study investigates Hurricane Ivan, which traversed the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) in September 2004. Several oceanic and wave observational data sets, including Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) buoys, satellite altimeter data, and Scanning Radar Altimeter (SRA) data, allow for a unique analysis of the coupled atmosphere, ocean (Navy Coastal Ocean Model, NCOM), and wave (Simulating WAves Nearshore, SWAN) models in COAMPS-TC. To determine the feasibility of coupling NCOM to SWAN in high-wind conditions during Hurricane Ivan, near-surface currents in NCOM were first compared to near-surface ADCP observations. Recent modifications to SWAN, including new wind-to-wave energy input and wave-breaking energy dissipation source functions, as well as a new ocean surface drag coefficient formulation appropriate for high-wind conditions, significantly improved the forecast wave field properties, such as significant wave height (SWH), in TC conditions. Further results show that the ocean-to-wave model coupling, which allows for the strong, hurricane-induced, surface currents in NCOM to interact with SWAN, provided additional improvements to the forecast SWH field. Additionally, wave-to-ocean model coupling, which included the input of the Stokes Drift Current (SDC) calculated from the SWAN wave spectra to NCOM, is examined. The models indicate that the SDC was on the order of 10–25% of the near-surface Eulerian current during Ivan. Recent studies of the importance of the SDC and the resulting Langmuir turbulence on vertical ocean mixing in TCs is also discussed.

Characterization of westward propagating signals in the South Atlantic from altimeter and radiometer records

Radar altimeter data from TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 and microwave radiometer data from TRMM/TMI are used to investigate the large-scale variability between 10.5°S and 35.5°S in the South Atlantic Ocean. The proposed method for the analysis of the longitude–time diagrams of the cross-correlation between SSH and SST anomalies shows that the variability in mid latitudes is a blend of first-mode baroclinic Rossby waves and propagating mesoscale eddy-like structures. The estimated phase speed of the wave (cp) and propagation speed of the eddies (cv) are similar. In 70% of the cases, the absolute difference between cp and cv is less than 11%. In 40% of the cases this difference is less than 5%. Statistical results indicate that in the case of eddies, as the thermocline deepens the sea surface temperature rises and vice-versa. However, planetary waves show more complex, yet self-consistent results. In lower latitudes (10.5°S–15.5°S), the shallower thermocline and the weak thermal gradients impose a zero phase lag between temperature and height, similar to eddies. Poleward of those latitudes, sea surface temperature and height are in quadrature of phase. This indicates that geostrophic advection of the relatively stronger thermal gradient is performed by Rossby waves.

Obtaining instantaneous water levels relative to a geoid with a 2D storm surge model

Current and new applications of 2D storm surge models such as the Dutch Continental Shelf Model (DCSM) require that the models provide proper estimates of the instantaneous water levels expressed relative to a particular geoid, rather than only the tide and surge components expressed relative to the ill-defined model's zero height surface. For DCSM, this is realized by adding the depth-averaged horizontal baroclinic pressure gradients to the model equations, which are derived from 4D salinity and temperature fields provided by the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory hydrodynamic model (POL's hindcast). The vertical datum of the extended model is fixed to that of the European Gravimetric Geoid model 2008 (EGG08). This is done by an adjustment of the model parameters that depend on the choice of the reference surface (e.g., bathymetry) and by referring the water levels along the open boundaries to this reference surface. Using different numerical experiments we investigate the effects on the water levels of several approximations we have made during the implementation. The ability of the model to reproduce both the mean sea level (MSL) and instantaneous water levels is assessed by a comparison with the MSL derived from POL's hindcast as well as with instantaneous water levels acquired by various radar altimeter satellites. From this comparison we conclude that our modeled MSL is in good agreement with the MSL derived from POL's hindcast; the standard deviation of the differences is below 2cm. However, larger differences in MSL are observed when comparing the model output with the MSL derived from radar altimeter data. They are attributed to either geoid errors or errors in the used salinity and temperature fields. The root mean squared (rms) differences between observed and modeled instantaneous water levels over the entire model domain varies from 9cm for data acquired by the TOPEX satellite to 11cm for data acquired by the GFO-1 satellite. These numbers improve to 8–10cm on the North Sea, for data acquired by the TOPEX and ERS-2 satellites, respectively. These numbers are a factor two to three larger than the expected accuracy of water levels derived from radar altimeter data (which is ∼4cm). About 25% of these differences can be explained by a bias between the modeled and observed water levels of a single satellite pass. These biases are attributed to errors in the applied correction for the net steric expansion/contraction of the global oceans as this is not captured by DCSM that makes use of the Boussinesq approximation, as well as other errors in model and data.

A First Assessment of IceBridge Snow and Ice Thickness Data Over Arctic Sea Ice

We present a first assessment of airborne laser and radar altimeter data over snow-covered sea ice, gathered during the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Operation IceBridge Mission. We describe a new technique designed to process radar echograms from the University of Kansas snow radar to estimate snow depth. We combine IceBridge laser altimetry with radar-derived snow depths to determine sea ice thickness. Results are validated through comparison with direct measurements of snow and ice thickness collected in situ at the Danish GreenArc 2009 sea ice camp located on fast ice north of Greenland. The IceBridge instrument suite provides accurate measurements of snow and ice thickness, particularly over level ice. Mean IceBridge snow and ice thickness agree with in situ measurements to within ~ 0.01 and ~ 0.05 m, respectively, while modal snow and ice thickness estimates agree to within 0.02 and 0.10 m, respectively. IceBridge snow depths were correlated with in situ measurements (R = 0.7, for an averaging length of 55 m). The uncertainty associated with the derived IceBridge sea ice thickness estimates is 0.40 m. The results demonstrate the retrieval of both first-year and multiyear ice thickness from IceBridge data. The airborne data were however compromised in heavily ridged ice where snow depth, and hence ice thickness, could not be measured. Techniques developed as part of this study will be used for routine processing of IceBridge retrievals over Arctic sea ice. The limitations of the GreenArc study are discussed, and recommendations for future validation of airborne measurements via field activities are provided.

Preliminary gravity recovery from CryoSat-2 data in the Baffin Bay

A number of geophysical phenomenons in the open ocean are still unresolved by conventional altimetry, but could be resolved through the potential improvements offered by Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), also called Delay-Doppler, altimetry. The SAR altimeter offers the following benefits with respect to conventional satellite altimetry: factor of 20 improvements in the along-track resolution, the along-track footprint length which does not vary with wave height (sea state), and improved precision in sea surface height measurements or sea surface slope measurements.In this paper these improvements are studied with respect to retrieval of short wavelength geophysical signal related to mainly bathymetric features. In an analysis of simulated data it was found that the combination of upward continuation from the sea bottom and smoothing of the altimeter observations meant that the best recovery of geophysical signal was achieved from measurements averaged to 5Hz, rather than the simulated 20Hz full resolution data. A first validation of these theoretical modelling results with respect to resolution and noise is presented using various CryoSat-2 data, and evaluated against conventional radar altimeter data from the older ERS-1 Geodetic Missions.

New improved orbit solutions for the ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites

Improved orbit solutions of the European Remote Sensing Satellites ERS-1 and ERS-2 have been computed in the ITRF2005 terrestrial reference frame using the recent models based mainly on IERS Conventions 2003. These solutions cover the periods 3 August 1991 to 8 July 1996 for ERS-1, and 3 May 1995 to 4 July 2003 for ERS-2. For each satellite, the final orbit solution is based on a combination of three separate orbit solutions independently computed at the Delft Institute of Earth Observation and Space Systems (DEOS) of the Delft University of Technology (The Netherlands), the Navigation Support Office of the European Space Operations Centre (ESOC, Germany) and the Helmholtz Centre Potsdam GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences (Germany) using three different software packages for precise orbit determination, but using the same models in the same terrestrial reference frame within the European Space Agency (ESA) project ‘Reprocessing of Altimeter Products for ERS (REAPER)’. Validation using radar altimeter data indicates that the new combined orbits of ERS-1 and ERS-2 computed by us are significantly more accurate, approaching the 2–3cm level in radial direction, than previously available orbit solutions.

Merging and Analysis of Elevation Time Series Over Greenland Ice Sheet From Satellite Radar Altimetry

Spatial–temporal variability and changes of Greenland ice sheet elevation from 1992 to 2008 are analyzed from merged ERS-1, ERS-2, and Envisat satellite radar altimeter data. A methodology for determining intersatellite biases was developed and applied in order to merge measurements from these different satellites and to create continuous and consistent time series. Intersatellite biases of elevation and backscatter coefficient have shown to be significantly affected by the bias between measurements in ascending and descending orbits. Adjustment of elevation time series for its dependence on backscatter coefficient and other waveform parameters performed in this paper substantially reduced the amplitude of elevation seasonal variations and locally corrected elevation change-rate estimates by up to several centimeters per year. It was found that the correction depends not only on the variations in the waveform parameters but also on the temporal variations of the correlation gradients, which represent the sensitivity of the elevation change to the change in the waveform parameters. An elevation change rate of <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$+2.8 \pm 0.2\ \hbox{cm/year}$</tex></formula> from 1992 to 2008 over 76% of the Greenland ice sheet area was found. Increases in surface elevation from 1995 observed over the high-elevation regions of Greenland were followed by an elevation decrease from 2006. For the whole period of 1992–2008, the elevation increase is 4.0 <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$\pm$</tex></formula> 0.2 cm/year over 87% of the area above 1500 m. In contrast, over 38% of the low-elevation areas below 1500 m, the rate of elevation change is <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$-7.0 \pm 1.0\ \hbox{cm/year}$</tex></formula> , and the surface elevation decrease that started from 2000 has continued.

Mediterranean Sea level variations: Analysis of the satellite altimetric data, 1992–2008

Sixteen years of satellite radar altimeter data are analyzed to investigate the sea-level variation (SLV) of the Mediterranean Sea. The time evolution of the overall mean sea level of the Mediterranean Sea follows its own regional dynamics. The geographical distribution of the seasonal signal (annual and semi-annual) indicates that the major features of the Mediterranean Sea circulation are driving the highest seasonal variability, and that an eastward propagation exists between the western and eastern basins. While in previous studies the trend of SLV has been modeled as linear, in this study with a longer record of observations we found that a quadratic acceleration term is statistically significant for practically the whole basin, especially in those regions where the trend provides a significant contribution to the SLV. The inclusion of the quadratic acceleration term accounts better for the Mediterranean SLV trend, as the residual low frequency SLV in wintertime is highly correlated with NAO at zero time lag in almost the whole basin. The residual high-frequency signal variability, on the other hand, can be explained by mesoscale phenomena, such as eddies and gyres. Our comprehensive analysis of the Mediterranean SLV provides source observations for monitoring and understanding of both regular and transient phenomena.

Antarctic ice-shelf thickness from satellite radar altimetry

AbstractIce-shelf thickness is an important boundary condition for ice-sheet and sub-ice-shelf cavity modelling. It is required near the grounding line to calculate the ice flux used to determine ice-sheet mass balance by comparison with the upstream accumulation. In this mass budget approach, the accuracy of the ice thickness is one of the limiting factors in the calculation. We present a satellite retrieval of the ice thickness for all Antarctic ice shelves using satellite radar altimeter data from the geodetic phases of the European Remote-sensing Satellite (ERS-1) during 1994–95 supplemented by ICESat data for regions south of the ERS-1 latitudinal limit. Surface elevations derived from these instruments are interpolated on to regular grids using kriging, and converted to ice thicknesses using a modelled firn-density correction. The availability of a new spatial variable firn-density correction significantly reduces the error in ice thickness as this was previously the dominant error source. Comparison to airborne data shows good agreement, particularly when compared to SOAR CASERTZ data on the largest ice shelves. Biases range from −13.0 m for areas where the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium breaks down, to 53.4 m in regions where marine ice may be present.

Water volume variations in Lake Izabal (Guatemala) from in situ measurements and ENVISAT Radar Altimeter (RA-2) and Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) data products

Summary The water storage variations in lakes affect their physical, chemical and biological processes. Besides, the water masses of these waterbodies reflect the balance of the rainfall and evaporation with surface and ground waters. The lake’s water volume is estimated combining water level variations with accurate bathymetry and shore topography maps. Lake Izabal is the largest waterbody of Guatemala (approximately 673.29 km 2 ). Its water volume has been estimated in the past but the volume variations are still unknown. The lake water level variations are monitored in situ since 2004, but regrettably accurate information about the bathymetry and shore topography is not available. The main objective of this study was to make a first estimate of the Lake Izabal water volume variations. To do this, we combined level variations and inundated area variations. The lack of accurate bathymetry and topography maps was overcame by using inundated area variations in the assumption that every level change reflects an inundated area response, depending on bathymetry and shore topography. The level variations were estimated from an in situ moored gauged in the lake and from the ENVISAT Radar Altimeter (RA-2). The inundated area variations were obtained using 12 ENVISAT Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) images. Prior to the area estimates the lake’s shoreline was extracted making use of a chain of existing image processing algorithms. The correlation analysis between in situ lake levels and inundated area variations yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.9. The volume variations of the lake were then estimated on the dates of the acquired SAR images. Then, a group of rating curves relating level, area and volume were developed. In order to extend the area and volume estimates to the whole study time period (February 2003 to December 2006) the lake levels from the RA-2 dataset were entered to the rating curves. The estimated water volume variations of Lake Izabal range between 8271.2 × 10 6 m 3 (17th December of 2005) and 9018.15 × 10 6 m 3 (15th July of 2006) in agreement with the most recent estimation of the Lake Izabal water volume (8300 × 10 6 m 3 ). Regarding the inundated area variations, they range between 672.44 × 10 6 m 2 (17th December of 2005) and 677.2 × 10 6 m 2 (15th July of 2006) in agreement with the Guatemalan government information (673.29 km 2 ). The water volume, inundated area and water level fluctuations of the Lake Izabal show a strong seasonal signal with high stages during the rainy season (May–November) and low stages during the dry seasons (December–April). These results give valuable information for the Lake Izabal management and strengthen the idea of using remote sensing as a powerful and cheap complementary tool for hydrologic purposes.

Atmospheric aerosol characterization with the Dutch–Chinese FAST formation flying mission

Large current uncertainties in the characteristics of aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere preclude meaningful climate model evaluation. The FAST mission will contribute to the characterization of aerosols and their relation to climate change through a synoptic evaluation of local, regional and global aerosol data and altitude profiles of the cryosphere. The Dutch–Chinese mission will implement this objective through a unique combination of payloads onboard of two cooperating micro-satellites flying in formation in a Low-Earth Orbit. The FAST payload suite is unique in that it allows an unprecedented characterization of aerosols through a spectro-polarimeter instrument, which, in combination with radar and laser altimeter data, contributes to the characterization of the indirect climate forcing due to aerosols. Finally, flying instruments on two satellites in formation allows an exceptional flexibility to study the temporal and spatial distribution and evolution of aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere.

A new 1 km digital elevation model of Antarctica derived from combined radar and laser data – Part 2: Validation and error estimates

Abstract. We have developed a new digital elevation model (DEM) of Antarctica from a combination of satellite radar and laser altimeter data. Here, we assess the accuracy of the DEM by comparison with airborne altimeter data from four campaigns covering a wide range of surface slopes and ice sheet regions. Root mean squared (RMS) differences varied from 4.75 m, when compared to a densely gridded airborne dataset over the Siple Coast region of West Antarctica to 33.78 m when compared to a more limited dataset over the Antarctic Peninsula where surface slopes are high and the across track spacing of the satellite data is relatively large. The airborne data sets were employed to produce an error map for the DEM by developing a multiple linear regression model based on the variables known to influence errors in the DEM. Errors were found to correlate highly with surface slope, roughness and density of satellite data points. Errors ranged from typically ~1 m over the ice shelves to between about 2 and 6 m for the majority of the grounded ice sheet. In the steeply sloping margins, along the Peninsula and mountain ranges the estimated error is several tens of metres. Less than 2% of the area covered by the satellite data had an estimated random error greater than 20 m.

Analysis of Short Space–Time-Scale Variability of Oceanic Rain Using TOPEX/Jason

Abstract Information on the spatial and temporal variability of rain rate is important not only for meteorology and hydrology but also for the design of remote sensing and in situ measuring or of millimeter wave communication systems. The Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Jason Tandem Mission (TM) collocated rain dataset is used in this study to determine the small space-scale (5 km) and time-scale (70 s) rain variability. TOPEX and Jason dual-frequency (Ku and C bands) radar altimeter data have been extensively used during the past decade to detect and study oceanic precipitations. During the TM, designed to intercalibrate and validate the two altimeters, the two satellites were put on the same orbit with a 70-s time separation. With combined use of altimeter and passive microwave radiometers (also available on board altimeter missions), rain intensity, rain attenuation, rain layer height, rain event length, and surface winds can also be estimated and provide valuable coincident geophysical contextual information. The size of the TM collocated rain database (140 000 samples) is large enough to allow a meaningful statistical analysis of the time–space variability of rain over the World Ocean. The analysis of the different terms contributing to the variability of rain attenuation, from which rain rate is inferred, shows that the geophysical and/or instrumental noise is small enough to allow a meaningful estimation of the variability of the measured rain rate. The analysis of the time and space variabilities and their relation reveals two well-defined regimes. The first one, corresponding to convective rain cells (i.e., rain rate greater than 3–4 mm h−1, length smaller than 50 km, and freezing level greater than 3.5 km), is characterized by high temporal and spatial variabilities (greater than 2–3 mm h−1) that increase with increasing rain intensity and decreasing cell length. Horizontal variability is significantly larger than the temporal one and surface wind has a very limited impact. The second regime corresponds to stratiform and/or weak rain cells. The temporal and spatial variabilities are relatively low (on the order of 1–2 mm h−1) and vary little with rain intensity and cell length. The temporal variability increases with surface wind and largely exceeds the spatial variability (ratio of 2 or more); the ratio strongly increases with increasing wind speed.