Racial Residential Research Articles

Association Between Changes in Racial Residential and School Segregation and Trends in Racial Health Disparities, 2000-2020: A Life Course Perspective.

Most studies of the relationship between racial segregation and racial health disparities have focused on residential segregation. School-based racial segregation is an additional form of segregation that may be associated with racial disparities in health. This study examines the relationship between both residential segregation and school segregation and racial health disparities among non-Hispanic Black compared to non-Hispanic White persons at the county level in the United States. It also examines the relationship between changes in residential and school segregation and subsequent trajectories in a variety of racial health disparities across the life course. Using the CDC WONDER Multiple Case of Death database, we derived an annual estimate of race-specific death rates and rate ratios for each county during the period 2000-2020. We then examined the relationship between baseline levels of residential and school segregation in 1991 as well as changes between 1991-2000 and the trajectories of the observed racial health disparities between 2000 and 2020. We used latent trajectory analysis to identify counties with similar patterns of residential and school segregation over time and to identify counties with similar trajectories in each racial health disparity. Outcomes included life expectancy, early mortality (prior to age 65), infant mortality, firearm homicide, total homicide, and teenage pregnancy rates. During the period 1991-2020, racial residential segregation remained essentially unchanged among the 1051 counties in our sample; however, racial school segregation increased during this period. Increases in school segregation from 1991 to 2000 were associated with higher racial disparities in each of the health outcomes during the period 2000-2020 and with less progress in reducing these disparities. This paper provides new evidence that school segregation is an independent predictor of racial health disparities and that reducing school segregation-even in the face of high residential segregation-could have a long-term impact on reducing racial health disparities. Furthermore, it suggests that the health consequences of residential segregation have not been eliminated from our society but are now being exacerbated by a new factor: school-based segregation. Throughout this paper, changes in school-based segregation not only show up as a consistent significant predictor of greater racial disparities throughout the life course, but at times, an even stronger predictor of health inequity than residential segregation.

Real Estate Platforms, the Housing Search Process, and Racial Residential Stratification

Real Estate Platforms, the Housing Search Process, and Racial Residential Stratification

Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation and Gentrification in New York City

Racial residential segregation is interconnected with several other phenomena such as income inequalities, property values inequalities, and racial disparities in health and education. Furthermore, recent literature suggests the phenomenon of gentrification as a cause of perpetuation or increase of racial residential segregation in some American cities. In this paper, we analyze the dynamics of racial residential segregation for white, black, Asian, and Hispanic citizens in New York City in 1990, 2000, and 2010. It was possible to observe that segregation between white and Hispanic citizens and between white and Asian ones has grown, while segregation between white and black is relatively stable. Furthermore, we analyzed the per capita income and the Gini coefficient in each segregated zone, showing that the highest inequalities occur in the zones where there is an overlap of high-density zones of pair of races. Focusing on the changing of the density of population across the city during these 20 years, and by analyzing white and black people’s segregation, our analysis reveals that a positive flux of white (black) people is associated with a substantial increase (decrease) of the property values, as compared with the city mean. Furthermore, by clustering the region with the higher density of black citizens, we measured the variation of area and displacement of the four most significant clusters from 1990 to 2010. The large displacements (≈1.6km) observed for two of these clusters, namely, one in the neighborhood of Harlem and the other inside the borough of Brooklyn, led to the emergence of typically gentrified regions.

Racial Residential Segregation and Race Differences in Ideal Cardiovascular Health among Young Men.

Background: Race disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) related morbidity and mortality are evident among men. While previous studies show health in young adulthood and racial residential segregation (RRS) are important factors for CVD risk, these factors have not been widely studied in male populations. We sought to examine race differences in ideal cardiovascular health (CVH) among young men (ages 24–34) and whether RRS influenced this association. Methods: We used cross-sectional data from young men who participated in Wave IV (2008) of the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 5080). The dichotomous outcome, achieving ideal CVH, was defined as having ≥4 of the American Heart Association’s Life’s Simple 7 targets. Race (Black/White) and RRS (proportion of White residents in census tract) were the independent variables. Descriptive and multivariate analyses were conducted. Results: Young Black men had lower odds of achieving ideal CVH (OR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.49, 0.92) than young White men. However, RRS did not have a significant effect on race differences in ideal CVH until the proportion of White residents was ≥55%. Conclusions: Among young Black and White men, RRS is an important factor to consider when seeking to understand CVH and reduce future cardiovascular risk.

Beyond the City: Exploring the Suburban and Rural Landscapes of Racial Residential Integration across the United States.

In recent decades, racial and ethnic diversity has expanded from the city into the suburbs, the rural-urban interface, and remote rural places across all regions in the United States. This study examines how these population trends shape the possibility of racial residential integration across the American rural-urban continuum and regions. Using the information theory index (H) and racial and ethnic composition thresholds, we identify integrated cities, suburbs, and rural towns and villages that are stably integrated between the 2000 and 2010 censuses. This study shows a substantial number of diverse places where people of different races and ethnicities live near each other. Further, the largest clusters of integration locate in suburbs, followed by rural places, while central cities show the lowest rates of integration. In addition, the West typically hosts larger numbers of integrated communities compared to other regions. Findings suggest that to better understand shifting patterns of American racial inequality, research must look outside the city and toward the West to investigate residential integration as a new form of 21st-century race relations.

Media Consumption and Racial Residential Preferences

ObjectiveTo what extent do mainstream media, social media, and ethnic media consumption, as dominant and counter‐dominant forms of public discourse, connect to where people prefer to live? We unpack whether media consumption influences such preferences in Texas, a racially segregated and increasingly racially diverse state.MethodsUsing the Texas Diversity Survey (n = 1,322), we run a series of logit regression models, stratified by respondent race (Black, Latinx, Multiracial, and White), to measure the relationship between media consumption and racial residential preferences.ResultsWe find that racial residential preferences are shaped not only by expected attributes (e.g., age, education, racial composition of current neighborhood of residence) but also by whether mainstream media are consumed for Latinx respondents. Whites who consume ethnic media are significantly more likely to prefer living in Black and Latinx communities.ConclusionThese findings suggest that public discourse is connected to residential preference formation and a “sense of group position”—but how this happens depends on the media source as well as the group in question.

Race or racial segregation? Modification of the PM2.5 and cardiovascular mortality association.

BackgroundMany studies have identified an inequitable distribution of exposure to PM2.5 (particulate matter less than 2.5 microns) by race. We investigated the association of PM2.5 and cardiovascular mortality considering both the decedents’ race and neighborhood racial composition as potential modifiers.MethodsWe obtained geocoded cardiovascular mortality records of all black and white decedents from urban block-groups in Massachusetts between 2001 and 2011 (n = 130,863). We examined the association between PM2.5 and cardiovascular mortality, and assessed effect modification by three types of racial modifiers: decedents’ race, census block-group percent black and white, and two novel measures of racial segregation. The Racial Residential Segregation (RRS) quantifies the concentration of non-Hispanic blacks and whites in each block-group. The Index of Racial Dissimilarity measures dissimilarity in non-Hispanic black and white racial distribution between the smaller census block-group and larger tract.ResultsWe found a 2.35%(95%CI: 0.92%;3.79%) increase in mortality for each 10μg/m3 increase in two-day average exposure to PM2.5. The effect was modified by the block-group racial composition, with higher risks in block-groups with the highest percentage of black residents (interaction p-value = 0.04), and in block-groups with the lowest RRS (i.e. higher black to white resident ratio, interaction p-value = 0.072). Racial dissimilarity did not modify the associations.ConclusionCurrent levels of PM2.5 are associated with increased cardiovascular deaths in Massachusetts, with different risks between areas with different racial composition and segregation. This suggests that pollution reductions in neighborhoods with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic blacks would be most beneficial in reducing cardiovascular mortality and disparities.

Abstract MP58: Racial Residential Segregation is Associated With Worse Cardiovascular Health in African American Adults: The Jackson Heart Study

Introduction: Racial residential segregation results in increased exposure to adverse neighborhood environments for African Americans; however, the impact of segregation on ideal cardiovascular health (CVH) has not been examined in large, socioeconomically diverse African American samples. Using a novel spatial measure of neighborhood-level racial residential segregation, we examined the association between segregation and ideal CVH in the Jackson Heart Study (JHS). Hypothesis: Racial residential segregation will be associated with worse cardiovascular health among African American adults. Methods: The sample included 4,354 men and women ages 21-93 from the baseline exam of the JHS (2000-2004). Racial residential segregation was assessed at the census-tract level. Data on racial composition (% African American) from the 2000 US Census was used to calculate the local G i * statistic- a spatially-weighted z-score that represents how much a neighborhood’s racial/ethnic composition deviates from the larger metropolitan area. Ideal CVH was assessed using the AHA Life’s Simple Seven (LS7) index which includes 3 behavioral (nutrition, physical activity, and smoking) and 4 biological (systolic BP, glucose, BMI, and cholesterol) metrics of CVH. Multivariable regression models were used to test associations between segregation and the LS7 index continuously (range: 0-14) and categorically (Inadequate: 0-4; Average: 5-9; and Optimal: 10-14). Covariates included age, sex, income, education, and insurance status. Results: The average LS7 summary score was 7.03 (±2.1) and was lowest in the most racially segregated neighborhood environments (High Segregation: 6.88 ±2.1 vs. Low Segregation: 7.55 ±2.1). The prevalence of inadequate CVH was higher in racially segregated neighborhoods (12.3%) compared to neighborhoods that were the least segregated (6.9%). After adjusting for key socio-demographic characteristics, racial residential segregation was inversely associated with ideal CVH (B=-0.041 ±0.02, p=0.0146). Moreover, a 1-SD unit increase in segregation was associated with a 6% increased odds of having inadequate CVH (OR: 1.06, 95% CI: 1.00-1.12, p=0.0461). Conclusion: In conclusion, African Americans in racially segregated neighborhoods are less likely to achieve ideal CVH even after accounting for individual-level factors. Policies aimed at restricting housing segregation/discrimination and/or structural interventions designed to improve neighborhood environments may be viable strategies to improving CVH in this at-risk population.

The Effect of the Change of Racial Residential Segregation on Housing Variables between 2000 and 2010 in Dallas-Arlington-Ft. Worth Metropolitan Area in Texas

The Effect of the Change of Racial Residential Segregation on Housing Variables between 2000 and 2010 in Dallas-Arlington-Ft. Worth Metropolitan Area in Texas

Role of Racial Residential Segregation, Political Participation, and Social Capital on the Psychological Distress of Asian Americans in California

Role of Racial Residential Segregation, Political Participation, and Social Capital on the Psychological Distress of Asian Americans in California

The Effect of the Change of Ethnic Population and Racial Residential Segregation on Housing Characteristics in Chicago Metropolitan Area from 2000 to 2010: Focused on Blacks and Hispanics

The Effect of the Change of Ethnic Population and Racial Residential Segregation on Housing Characteristics in Chicago Metropolitan Area from 2000 to 2010: Focused on Blacks and Hispanics

Abstract C14: Decomposing Racial Disparities in Breast Reconstruction Surgery

Abstract Background: Breast Reconstruction Surgery (BRS) is an important component of overall breast cancer treatment and is known to improve psychosocial and quality of life outcomes for patients who undergo mastectomy. Clinical guidelines recommend that BRS should be offered to all women who undergo mastectomy. However, significant racial disparities in receipt of BRS have been observed in literature. African Americans are known to be less likely to receive BRS as compared to Non-Hispanic Whites (NHWs) even after controlling for clinical characteristics. Not much is known about the factors that contribute to this disparity. Racial differences in barriers to receipt of BRS may explain the disparity. These barriers are grouped into patient, provider and area level factors. Objective: To determine the degree to which racial disparity in the receipt of BRS can be explained by observed factors at the patient, hospital and area level using Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method. Data: State inpatient databases (SIDs) for 2010-2012 from seven diverse states were used to identify patients with breast cancer. Information on hospital-level characteristics was derived from the American Hospital Association (AHA) data and the area-level data was derived from the Area Health Resource File (AHRF) and the University of Michigan Racial Residential Segregation Measurement Project. Analyses: The primary outcome was receipt of BRS with mastectomy compared to mastectomy alone. The Fairlie modification to the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method was used to decompose the difference in likelihood of receiving BRS between Non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks into components that are explained by each observed characteristic. The observed characteristics included in the model are patient-level barriers: lack of insurance and higher comorbidities; hospital-level barriers: hospital-level factors that reduce the likelihood of offering culturally competent and appropriate care (racial mix catered to by the hospital, availability of knowledge and resources, market competition, etc.); and area-level barriers: racial residential segregation, socio-economic status of the area and availability of plastic surgeons. Findings: Racial differences in insurance status can explain 22% of the disparity and racial differences in socio-economic status of the county can explain 13% of the disparity in receipt of BRS between African American and NHW women. Other factors that contribute significantly to the racial disparity in BRS are higher rates of obesity, higher number and severity of comorbidities in African Americans and higher likelihood of seeking care at hospitals that cater to racial minorities. Lower likelihood of seeking care at an NCI designated Cancer Center by African American women also contributes significantly to the racial disparity in receipt of BRS for these women. On the other hand, African American patients are likely to be younger, reside in urban counties with high density of plastic surgeons and seek care at larger hospitals located in regions with high market competition. These factors contribute significantly to reducing disparities in receipt of BRS for African American women. Living in racially segregated neighborhoods reduces disparities in receipt of BRS for African American women. This could be explained by better psychosocial support in segregated neighborhoods. Conclusions: Known barriers to access significantly influence receipt of BRS for African American women. These findings help guide policy makers towards the barriers that have a high and significant impact on disparities. Selectively addressing these barriers may provide a focused approach to mitigating racial disparities in receipt of BRS. Citation Format: Jaya Shankar Khushalani. Decomposing Racial Disparities in Breast Reconstruction Surgery. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Ninth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2016 Sep 25-28; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2017;26(2 Suppl):Abstract nr C14.

The Old Jim Crow: Racial Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Imprisonment

This article examines the impact of racial residential segregation on imprisonment rates at the neighborhood level. Key to the strength of this enterprise is block‐group level data on imprisonment, crime, and other demographic factors for about 5,000 neighborhoods in North Carolina. These data also include information on county racial residential segregation from the Population Studies Center at the University of Michigan. Hierarchical linear models that control for neighborhood characteristics, such as racial diversity, crime, poverty, unemployment, median income, homeownership, and other factors, show that neighborhoods in more segregated counties have higher imprisonment rates than neighborhoods in less segregated counties. On average, neighborhoods in counties with segregation levels at the minimum of 41.4 are expected to have imprisonment rates of 0.186 percent, while neighborhoods in counties with segregation levels at the maximum of 95.6 are expected to have imprisonment rates more than twice as high, or about 0.494 percent.

Dynamic Sorting and Racial Residential Segregation on Multiple-Neighborhood Market

Dynamic Sorting and Racial Residential Segregation on Multiple-Neighborhood Market

Metropolitan racial residential segregation and cardiovascular mortality: exploring pathways.

Racial residential segregation has been associated with an increased risk for heart disease and stroke deaths. However, there has been little research into the role that candidate mediating pathways may play in the relationship between segregation and heart disease or stroke deaths. In this study, we examined the relationship between metropolitan statistical area (MSA)-level segregation and heart disease and stroke mortality rates, by age and race, and also estimated the effects of various educational, economic, social, and health-care indicators (which we refer to as pathways) on this relationship. We used Poisson mixed models to assess the relationship between the isolation index in 265 U.S. MSAs and county-level (heart disease, stroke) mortality rates. All models were stratified by race (non-Hispanic black, non-Hispanic white), age group (35-64 years, ≥ 65 years), and cause of death (heart disease, stroke). We included each potential pathway in the model separately to evaluate its effect on the segregation-mortality association. Among blacks, segregation was positively associated with heart disease mortality rates in both age groups but only with stroke mortality rates in the older age group. Among whites, segregation was marginally associated with heart disease mortality rates in the younger age group and was positively associated with heart disease mortality rates in the older age group. Three of the potential pathways we explored attenuated relationships between segregation and mortality rates among both blacks and whites: percentage of female-headed households, percentage of residents living in poverty, and median household income. Because the percentage of female-headed households can be seen as a proxy for the extent of social disorganization, our finding that it has the greatest attenuating effect on the relationship between racial segregation and heart disease and stroke mortality rates suggests that social disorganization may play a strong role in the elevated rates of heart disease and stroke found in racially segregated metropolitan areas.

Teaching and Learning Guide for: Racial Residential Segregation in Urban America

Teaching and Learning Guide for: Racial Residential Segregation in Urban America

Change in Racial and Ethnic Residential Inequality in American Cities, 1970–2000

We complement and extend research on change in racial and ethnic residential segregation by estimating determinants of change from 1970 to 2000 in four measures of residential inequality—dissimilarity, entropy, isolation, and net difference—between American Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Latinos. Because we use a longer time horizon and multiple measures, our findings clearly demonstrate some convergence in residential location patterns across groups, indicating gradual spatial assimilation in U.S. metropolitan areas. Although Blacks continue to be more segregated than either Asians or Latinos, residential inequality has declined more rapidly for Blacks than for the other two groups, particularly in terms of neighborhood socioeconomic status. We also find that all three groups, but particularly Asians, have been converting income gains relative to Whites into improved neighborhood socioeconomic status more than into increased residential integration with Whites.

Separate When Equal? Racial Inequality and Residential Segregation

Standard intuition suggests that residential segregation in the United States will decline when racial inequality narrows. In this paper, we hypothesize that the opposite will occur. We note that middle-class black neighborhoods are in short supply in many U.S. metropolitan areas, forcing highly educated blacks either to live in predominantly white high-socioeconomic status (SES) neighborhoods or in more black lower-SES neighborhoods. Increases in the proportion of highly educated blacks in a metropolitan area may then lead to the emergence of new middle-class black neighborhoods, causing increases in residential segregation. We formalize this mechanism using a simple model of residential choice that permits endogenous neighborhood formation. Our primary empirical analysis, based on across-MSA evidence from the 2000 Census, indicates that this mechanism does indeed operate: as the proportion of highly educated blacks in an MSA increases, so the segregation of blacks at all education levels increases. Time-series evidence provides additional support for the hypothesis, showing that an increase in black educational attainment in a metropolitan area between 1990-2000 significantly increases segregation. Our analysis has important implications for the evolution of both residential segregation and racial socioeconomic inequality, drawing attention to a negative feedback loop likely to inhibit reductions in segregation and racial inequality over time.

Product Review: Racial and Ethnic Residential Segregation in the United States: 1980 to 2000

Product Review: Racial and Ethnic Residential Segregation in the United States: 1980 to 2000

The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation

▪ Abstract The publication of American Apartheid ( Massey & Denton 1993 ) was influential in shifting public discourse back toward racial residential segregation as fundamental to persisting racial inequality. At the end of the twentieth century, the majority of blacks remained severely segregated from whites in major metropolitan areas. Due to the persistence of high-volume immigration, Hispanic and Asian segregation from whites has increased, although it is still best characterized as moderate. This review examines trends in the residential segregation of blacks, Hispanics, and Asians and recent research focused on understanding the causes of persisting segregation. This discussion is organized around two broad theoretical perspectives—spatial assimilation and place stratification. After detailing the consequences of segregation for affected groups, I identify gaps in our understanding and goals for future research.