Racial Group Differences Research Articles

Race, Belonging, and Participation in Religious Congregations

Significant effort has gone into understanding and promoting racial diversity in congregations. Still, uniting worshippers of different races remains a challenging endeavor. Even congregations that successfully attract worshippers of different races often have difficulty sustaining their multiracial composition. This study contributes to the discussion of race and religion by examining racial group differences in belonging and participation in congregations. Drawing on organizational ecology theory, we develop four hypotheses to test whether and how racial group size corresponds to congregational commitment. Results of multilevel modeling using 2001 U.S. Congregational Life Survey data reveal that those who are a part of a congregation's largest racial group possess a stronger sense of belonging and participate at a deeper level than congregants of other races. Moreover, differences in belonging and participation by racial group persist regardless of group size.

Racial differences in self-reports of short sleep duration in an urban-dwelling environment.

To explore whether there are differences in sleep duration between blacks and whites residing in similar urban neighborhoods and examine whether the relationship between sleep durations and sociodemographic and/or health indices are consistent for blacks and whites. A total of 1,207 participants from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Disparities across the Life Span study (age: mean = 47, standard deviation = 8.74). Sleep duration was assessed by a self-report of hours of nightly sleep in the past month. Sociodemographic measures included age, sex, education, poverty status, and perceived neighborhood disorder. Health status was assessed using measures of vigilance, depression, perceived stress, coronary artery disease, diabetes, blood pressure, and inflammation. There were no significant racial group differences in sleep duration. Whites, however, were more likely than blacks to report sleep durations of <6/6-7 hr compared with >7 hr with increasing stress and education levels. Blacks were more likely than whites to report short sleep durations (i.e., 6-7 hr vs. >7 hr of sleep) with increasing inflammation levels. Although racial disparities in sleep duration are minimized when the environment is equivalent between blacks and whites, the underlying demographic and health explanations for short sleep durations may vary between whites and blacks.

Chronic Pain Management by Ethnically and Racially Diverse Older Adults: Pharmacological and Nonpharmacological Pain Therapies

SUMMARY Exploration of racial and ethnic group differences in noncancer chronic pain management in older adults. Participants & methods: Qualitative data, which were collected in semistructured face-to-face interviews with 44 racially and ethnically diverse community-dwelling older adults (ten African-Americans, ten Hispanics, 12 Afro-Caribbeans and 12 non-Hispanic whites), were analyzed using constant comparative analysis. The three racial and ethnic minority groups were more likely to use culturally based treatments (e.g., herbal tea and avocado leaves), home remedies and folk medicine, and/or psychological therapies (e.g., distraction and relaxation) than non-Hispanic whites to manage chronic pain. African-Americans relied on religious coping methods. Non-Hispanic whites were more likely to use physical interventions such as massage and chiropractic treatment. Study findings suggest differences by ethnicity in preferred pain interventions for an older adult population.

RETENTION AND ATTRITION AMONG AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE STAR*D STUDY: WHAT CAUSES RESEARCH VOLUNTEERS TO STAY OR STRAY?

High attrition rates among African-Americans (AA) volunteers are a persistent problem that makes clinical trials less representative and complicates estimation of treatment outcomes. Many studies contrast AA with other ethnic/racial groups, but few compare the AA volunteers who remain in treatment with those who leave. Here, in addition to comparing patterns of attrition between African Americans and Whites, we identify predictors of overall and early attrition among African Americans. Sample comprised non-Hispanic African-American (n = 673) and White (n = 2,549) participants in the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) study. Chi-square tests were used to examine racial group differences in reasons for exit. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine predictors of overall attrition, early attrition (by level 2) and top reasons cited for attrition among African Americans. Both African-American and White dropouts most commonly cited noncompliance reasons for attrition during the earlier phases of the study, while citing reasons related to efficacy and medication side effects later in the study. Satisfaction with treatment strongly predicted overall attrition among African Americans independent of socioeconomic, clinical, medical or psychosocial factors. Early attrition among African American dropouts was associated with less psychiatric comorbidity, and higher perceived physical functioning but greater severity of clinician-rated depression. Compliance, efficacy, and side effects are important factors that vary in relative importance during the course of a clinical trial. For African Americans in such trials, retention strategies should be broadened to emphasize patient engagement and satisfaction during the critical periods immediately following enrollment and treatment initiation.

Do Racial and Ethnic Group Differences in Performance on the MCAT Exam Reflect Test Bias?

The Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) is a standardized examination that assesses fundamental knowledge of scientific concepts, critical reasoning ability, and written communication skills. Medical school admission officers use MCAT scores, along with other measures of academic preparation and personal attributes, to select the applicants they consider the most likely to succeed in medical school. In 2008-2011, the committee charged with conducting a comprehensive review of the MCAT exam examined four issues: (1) whether racial and ethnic groups differ in mean MCAT scores, (2) whether any score differences are due to test bias, (3) how group differences may be explained, and (4) whether the MCAT exam is a barrier to medical school admission for black or Latino applicants. This analysis showed that black and Latino examinees' mean MCAT scores are lower than white examinees', mirroring differences on other standardized admission tests and in the average undergraduate grades of medical school applicants. However, there was no evidence that the MCAT exam is biased against black and Latino applicants as determined by their subsequent performance on selected medical school performance indicators. Among other factors which could contribute to mean differences in MCAT performance, whites, blacks, and Latinos interested in medicine differ with respect to parents' education and income. Admission data indicate that admission committees accept majority and minority applicants at similar rates, which suggests that medical students are selected on the basis of a combination of attributes and competencies rather than on MCAT scores alone.

Advancing Genomic Research and Reducing Health Disparities: What Can Nurse Scholars Do?

AbstractPurposeAdvances in genomic research are improving our understanding of human diseases and evoking promise of an era of genomic medicine. It is unclear whether genomic medicine may exacerbate or attenuate extant racial group health disparities. We delineate how nurse scholars could engage in the configuration of an equitable genomic medicine paradigm.Organizing ConstructWe identify as legitimate subjects for nursing scholarship the scientific relevance, ethical, and public policy implications for employing racial categories in genomic research in the context of reducing extant health disparities.FindingsSince genomic research is largely population specific, current classification of genomic data will center on racial and ethnic groups. Nurse scholars should be involved in clarifying how putative racial group differences should be elucidated in light of the current orthodoxy that genomic solutions may alleviate racial health disparities.ConclusionsNurse scholars are capable of employing their expertise in concept analysis to elucidate how race is used as a variable in scientific research, and to use knowledge brokering to delineate how race variables that imply human ancestry could be utilized in genomic research pragmatically in the context of health disparities.Clinical RelevanceIn an era of genomic medicine, nurse scholars should recognize and understand the challenges and complexities of genomics and race and their relevance to health care and health disparities.

Health Psychology special section on disparities in pain.

In recognition of the importance of addressing health disparities and to encourage research, Health Psychology has called for manuscripts that reflect the breadth of issues related to health disparities. The section on Pain and Disparities in this present issue is part of a series that has included sections on infectious disease and cancer and will continue with a section in 2014 on disparities in genomic medicine. Because disparities in pain and pain care are the result of multiple and dynamic influences, explaining how racial group differences are manifested and perpetuated remains challenging. In this section, two studies focus on patient characteristics that might explain pain disparities. These two studies can be used to underscore the point that knowledge about, and sensitivity to, cultural issues should be an integral part of the pain curriculum of health professionals.

The Prevalence of Temporomandibular Joint and Muscle Disorders in African Americans

Temporomandibular joint and muscle disorder (TMJMD) prevalence studies have predominantly evaluated the U.S. general population, for which Caucasians make up the majority of the subjects. With the growing levels of minority populations in the United States, it is important to estimate the prevalence of TMJMD in African Americans, relative to the U.S. general population. Therefore, we administered a survey regarding acute jaw pain symptoms to a sample of 274 participants. The results revealed a TMJMD prevalence of 22.3% for all participants, 25.3% for women, 16% for men (X2(1, n = 158) = 7.097, p = .008). TMJMD prevalence in African Americans was 22%, while that for Caucasians was 22.5% (X2(1, n = 118) = .039, p = .843). Most importantly, there were differences in the distribution of the 21 TMJMD symptoms of our survey between African Americans and Caucasians. Thus, even though TMJMD prevalence rates between African Americans and Caucasians were different but not significant, there were significant differences in some of the 21 TMJMD symptoms, suggesting that researchers and clinicians may want to consider evaluating these racial group differences in developing the most effective treatment plans for them.

Racial group differences in support for citizenship duties and rights in the US: Racial differences citizenship duties and rights

Equality of participation and shared understandings of citizenship are fundamental to democracy. Although clear patterns of inequality according to racial group membership have been found regarding political participation, the extent to which such inequalities are also seen in public definitions of citizenship is unclear. Using the 2004 US General Social Survey, we examine respondents’ beliefs about citizenship duties and rights. Starting from theories on group membership and self-interest, and given the unequal access to full citizenship inherent in the United States, we hypothesize more support for citizenship as a duty among Whites, but more support for democratic rights among non-Whites. The findings of our multivariate analyses show that support for these expectations is mixed. Whites and non-Whites do not differ in the importance they place on citizenship duties. However, non-Whites are significantly more likely to support citizenship rights. The difference is partly explained by non-Whites’ greater likelihood of identifying with the Democratic Party. Implications for democracy and racial (in)equality are discussed.

Disparities in alcohol use: Does race matter as much as place?

ObjectivesNational estimates of race differences in alcohol use suggest that whites are more likely to be current and binge users of alcohol. These findings fail to account for race differences in the social and environmental context where people live. This study aims to determine whether race disparities persist in alcohol use among individuals who share similar social and environmental conditions. MethodsWe compared race disparities between individuals living in a low-income racially integrated urban community without race differences in socioeconomic status (EHDIC-SWB) to individuals from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS 2003) to determine if race disparities in alcohol use were attenuated in the integrated environment. ResultsIn the NHIS 2003 sample, compared to whites, African Americans had lower odds of being a current drinker (OR=0.56, 95% CI=0.49–0.64) and binge drinker (OR=0.68, 95% CI=0.58–0.80) independent of covariates. However in the EHDIC-SWB sample, African Americans had similar odds of being a current drinker (OR=0.94, 95% CI=0.67–1.33) and binge drinker (OR=1.02, 95% CI=0.77–1.35) compared to whites. ConclusionsAmong individuals who share similar social and environmental risk exposures, race group differences in alcohol use patterns are similar.

Intelligence.

Intelligence is the ability to learn from past experience and, in general, to adapt to, shape, and select environments. Aspects of intelligence are measured by standardized tests of intelligence. Average raw (number-correct) scores on such tests vary across the life span and also across generations, as well as across ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Intelligence can be understood in part in terms of the biology of the brain-especially with regard to the functioning in the prefrontal cortex. Measured values correlate with brain size, at least within humans. The heritability coefficient (ratio of genetic to phenotypic variation) is between 0.4 and 0.8. But genes always express themselves through environment. Heritability varies as a function of a number of factors, including socioeconomic status and range of environments. Racial-group differences in measured intelligence have been reported, but race is a socially constructed rather than biological variable. As a result, these differences are difficult to interpret. Different cultures have different conceptions of the nature of intelligence, and also require different skills in order to express intelligence in the environment. WIREs Cogn Sci 2012 doi: 10.1002/wcs.1193 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress and Growth Among Black and White Survivors of Hurricane Katrina: Does Perceived Quality of the Governmental Response Matter?

Data from the Baseline Survey of the Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group Study (Kessler 2009) were used to explore the predictors of posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress among black (n = 265) and white (n = 715) adult survivors of Hurricane Katrina. We focus on the perceived quality of the governmental response and cognitive processing related to the response on posttraumatic outcomes, and whether there were racial group differences. We also consider the impact of demographic factors and severity of stress. Results of hierarchical linear regression showed that being black, older, having lower educational attainment, and experiencing greater perceived stress and loss during Katrina positively predicted greater posttraumatic growth. Being female, living below the poverty line, and experiencing greater perceived stress and loss positively predicted posttraumatic stress symptoms. More positive views of the governmental response were associated with greater posttraumatic growth and more negative views with greater posttraumatic stress symptomology. Moreover, it was found that race significantly moderated the effect between perceived quality of the response and posttraumatic stress. Subgroup analysis corroborated the interaction effect and showed that while perceived quality of the governmental response significantly predicted posttraumatic stress for black survivors, it was not a significant predictor for white survivors. This study sheds light on some of the factors and conditions under which positive and negative post-trauma outcomes occurred after Katrina. We propose that racial group differences in the impact of perceived quality of the response on posttraumatic stress may be related to views among some black survivors that the emergency response was discriminatory.

Race group differences in prison victimization experiences

PurposeTo assess differences in victimization risk between African American and white, non-Latino inmates, and to estimate race group differences in the correlates of victimization. MethodsRandom samples totaling 2,403 African Americans and 3,150 whites were drawn from all state prisons in Ohio and Kentucky and all private prisons in Ohio (n=46). Race-specific bi-level models of physical assaults and property thefts were estimated. Differences between race-specific models in the magnitude of regression coefficients for the same predictors and outcomes were compared. ResultsThe odds of victimization by physical assault and by theft were significantly higher among whites compared to African Americans. Race group differences in the magnitude of several inmate level effects (e.g., age, sex, education, family status, officer “legitimacy”, custody score, visitation) were also significant, yet facility effects were similar for both groups. ConclusionsAssessing differences in the victimization experiences of African American and white inmates is important for developing effective crime prevention strategies in prison. We examined the most comprehensive models of inmate victimization (including inmate socio-demographics, activities during confinement, perceptions of officers, facility characteristics, and officer perceptions of rule enforcement) for one of the largest samples of prisons to date.

Racial/ethnic differences in adults in randomized clinical trials of binge eating disorder.

Recent studies suggest that binge eating disorder (BED) is as prevalent among African American and Hispanic Americans as among Caucasian Americans; however, data regarding the characteristics of treatment-seeking individuals from racial and ethnic minority groups are scarce. The purpose of this study was to investigate racial/ethnic differences in demographic characteristics and eating disorder symptoms in participants enrolled in treatment trials for BED. Data from 11 completed randomized, controlled trials were aggregated in a single database, the Clinical Trials of Binge Eating Disorder (CT-BED) database, which included 1,204 Caucasian, 120 African American, and 64 Hispanic participants assessed at baseline. Age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, body mass index (BMI), binge eating frequency, and Eating Disorder Examination (EDE) Restraint, Shape, Weight, and Eating Concern subscale scores were examined. Mixed model analyses indicated that African American participants in BED treatment trials had higher mean BMI than Caucasian participants, and Hispanic participants had significantly greater EDE shape, weight, and eating concerns than Caucasian participants. No racial or ethnic group differences were found on the frequency of binge eating episodes. Observed racial/ethnic differences in BED symptoms were not substantially reduced after adjusting for BMI and education. Comparisons between the CT-BED database and epidemiological data suggest limitations to the generalizability of data from treatment-seeking samples to the BED community population, particularly regarding the population with lower levels of education. Further research is needed to assess alternative demographic, psychological, and culturally specific variables to better understand the diversity of treatment-seeking individuals with BED.

Men and Their Father Figures: Exploring Racial and Ethnic Differences in Mental Health Outcomes.

Though gender, racial, and ethnic disparities in health in the United States are well documented, it is less clear how these factors intersect to produce patterns of mental health outcomes among men. This study examined the presence of father figures in the lives of African American, Caribbean black and non-Hispanic white American males until the age of 16; assessed the current socio-demographic factors of these men as adults; and explored whether these factors lead to variations in mental health outcomes. Regression models were used to examine the correlates of socio-demographic, psychosocial, and retrospective father figure measures for depressive symptoms and non-specific psychological distress among African American (n = 999), Caribbean black (n = 506), and non-Hispanic white men (n = 193) from the National Survey of American Life. Findings revealed racial and ethnic group differences by age, employment status, education, and household income on depressive symptoms (measured using the CES-D scale) and non-specific psychological distress (using the Kessler-6 scale). Findings suggested that being raised by a grandfather placed both African American and Caribbean black men at greater risk for depressive symptoms and non-specific psychological distress under certain socio-demographic conditions. This study is unique in that it considers the influence of father figures on the mental health outcomes of adult males across three racial and ethnic groups. We conclude with a discussion of the implications for future mental health research and practice with men of color.

Examining Multiple Sources of Differential Item Functioning on the Clinician &amp; Group CAHPS® Survey

To evaluate psychometric properties of a widely used patient experience survey. English-language responses to the Clinician & Group Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems (CG-CAHPS®) survey (n = 12,244) from a 2008 quality improvement initiative involving eight southern California medical groups. We used an iterative hybrid ordinal logistic regression/item response theory differential item functioning (DIF) algorithm to identify items with DIF related to patient sociodemographic characteristics, duration of the physician-patient relationship, number of physician visits, and self-rated physical and mental health. We accounted for all sources of DIF and determined its cumulative impact. The upper end of the CG-CAHPS® performance range is measured with low precision. With sensitive settings, some items were found to have DIF. However, overall DIF impact was negligible, as 0.14 percent of participants had salient DIF impact. Latinos who spoke predominantly English at home had the highest prevalence of salient DIF impact at 0.26 percent. The CG-CAHPS® functions similarly across commercially insured respondents from diverse backgrounds. Consequently, previously documented racial and ethnic group differences likely reflect true differences rather than measurement bias. The impact of low precision at the upper end of the scale should be clarified.

Distinguishing Race Effects on Pre-Trial Release and Sentencing Decisions

Racial disparities in court dispositions and sentences might reflect systemic biases toward minorities, but they might also stem from race group differences in legal or other extra-legal factors linked to a defendant’s risk for future criminality. Analyses of over 5,000 felony defendants from an urban Ohio jurisdiction revealed that significant main effects of a defendant’s race on release on one’s own recognizance (ROR), bond amounts, and prison sentences were rendered nonsignificant when controlling for legal factors, such as offense severity. Analyses of interaction effects, on the other hand, revealed that African American males age 18–29 experienced lower odds of ROR, higher bond amounts, and higher odds of incarceration in prison relative to other demographic subgroups, even with the inclusion of rigorous controls for legally relevant criteria. The relevance of these findings for understanding disparate treatment at different stages of case processing is discussed.

Effects of Race and Precipitating Event on Suicide Versus Nonsuicide Death Classification in a College Sample

Race group differences in suicide death classification in a sample of 109 Black and White university students were examined. Participants were randomly assigned to read three vignettes for which the vignette subjects' race (only) varied. The vignettes each described a circumstance (terminal illness, academic failure, or relationship difficulties) that preceded the vignette subject's ambiguously premature death. Participants were asked to describe "what happened." Black participants were significantly less likely than White participants to attribute a vignette target's death to suicide and also less likely to report that suicide is acceptable. Implications for future research and prevention efforts are discussed.

Differences in Black and White American College Students’ Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men

Differences in attitudes toward lesbians and gay men (ATLGM) held by Black and White Americans have rarely been studied systematically despite anecdotal evidence suggesting that Black Americans may be less accepting of lesbians and gay men than are White Americans. We tested the hypothesis that Black American’s ATLGM would be less positive than White Americans’ using data collected from 60 Black (36 female, 24 male) and 62 White (25 female, 37 male) students from a public university in the Midwestern United Sates. We found that Black students held generally neutral ATLGM whereas White students’ attitudes were slightly positive. This difference was mediated by racial group differences in right-wing authoritarianism.

Substance Abuse, Familial Factors, and Mental Health: Exploring Racial and Ethnic Group Differences Among African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic Juvenile Offenders

The present study examined racial, ethnic, and gender differences in family composition substance abuse, and mental health issues, such as depression and self-esteem among adjudicated juvenile offenders. Results revealed a negative relationship between depression and self-esteem among all ethnicities and family compositions. Caucasians reported greater incidence of substance abuse than did African American and Hispanic youth. Moreover, in reconstituted families, Caucasians had lower self-esteem scores than did other ethnicities. The findings illustrate the complexities of risk to substance use among high-risk populations, particularly as they relate to familial factors and the importance of intensive family therapy among this population.