Latrine Sites Research Articles

Ending Open Defecation: A Review of Community-Led Sanitation Programs.

Ending Open Defecation: A Review of Community-Led Sanitation Programs.

Improved genotyping and sequencing success rates for North American river otter (Lontra canadensis)

Genetic analysis of non-invasively collected fecal samples has become an important monitoring tool in wildlife management and population and conservation genetics. However, these samples are often difficult to obtain for bioindicator species such as river otters (Lontra canadensis). Moreover, DNA extraction and genotyping success rates have often been low in this species. In this technical note, alternate means of collecting fecal DNA samples at river otter latrine sites are described. Using a modified fecal swabbing protocol and a DNA lysis buffer solution, we were able to increase genotyping success rates to ≥ 69% at 9/11 loci. The increased success rate now renders this protocol a more cost-efficient and reliable method for generating population level data in this species.

Fear of feces? Tradeoffs between disease risk and foraging drive animal activity around raccoon latrines

Fear of predation alters prey behavior, which can indirectly alter entire landscapes. A parasite‐induced ecology of fear might also exist if animals avoid parasite‐contaminated resources when infection costs outweigh foraging benefits. To investigate whether animals avoid parasite contaminated sites, and if such avoidance balances disease costs and foraging gains, we monitored animal behavior at raccoon latrines – sites that concentrate both seeds and pathogenic parasite eggs. Using wildlife cameras, we documented over 40 potentially susceptible vertebrate species in latrines and adjacent habitat. Latrine contact rates reflected background activity, diet preferences and disease risk. Disease‐tolerant raccoons and rats displayed significant site attraction, while susceptible birds and small mammals avoided these high‐risk sites. This suggests that parasites, like predators, might create a landscape of fear for vulnerable hosts. Such non‐consumptive parasite effects could alter disease transmission, population dynamics, and even ecosystem structure.

Selection of latrine sites by Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) in Neshyang Valley, Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal

ABSTRACTMusk deer is threatened by poaching for musk pod and habitat fragmentation. The species is endangered within its distribution range including Nepal, Bhutan, India, Pakistan, Mongolia, China, Korea and Russia. In Nepal, the deer is confined to protected areas throughout the Himalaya. It is a solitary and shy forest dweller with a crepuscular activity pattern. It prefers and repeatedly uses one or more specific defecation sites. Such behaviour is believed to function in chemical communication among individuals. This study was conducted in Neshyang valley in the Annapurna Conservation Area, and aims to evaluate how musk deer selects the latrine site in its habitat taking into account both biotic and abiotic factors. In order to achieve this aim, we laid out a total of 23 transects of 500 m length throughout the study area. Within each transect, 20 m × 20 m nested structured quadrats were located at an interval of 100 m. We found that musk deer preferred to use latrine sites in fir forest while they avoid both blue pine forest and open areas. Furthermore, distance from water sources and mixed forests have a crucial role in selecting latrine sites by musk deer.

Soil-transmitted Helminth infection in the Tiko Health District, South West Region of Cameroon: a post-intervention survey on prevalence and intensity of infection among primary school children.

IntroductionSoil-transmitted helminths (STH) infection remains a public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa with children being most vulnerable. STH infection may result in impairment, permanent disability or death. Annual mass deworming has been implemented in the Tiko Health District (THD), however, no study has assessed the current prevalence of STH infection. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, intensity of STH infections and associated risk factors among school children.MethodsTwo months after the school deworming exercise, 400 children were sampled from 10 schools in THD. Stool samples were collected and analyzed using the Kato-katz technique. Data on socio-demographic and behavioral factors were collected using questionnaires. Data were analyzed using SPSS and intensity of infection categorized following WHO recommendations. Descriptive data were calculated with frequencies (n) and proportions (%), prevalence and 95% confidence interval calculated for gender and age respectively. Differences in prevalence for socio-demographic characteristics and behavioral variables were calculated with Chi square (χ2). Independent sample t-test was used to compare the means in the number of eggs in feces between male and female school children.ResultsThe prevalence of STH was 1% (95% CI: 0.02-1.98). Ascaris lumbricoides was the only STH species detected and all cases were of low intensities. The arithmetic mean egg intensity was 3.1egg per gram of faeces. Rates of infection were similar between gender and age. Site of defecation showed an association with STH infection (χ2 = 13.63, p=0.03).ConclusionThese findings suggested a low prevalence of STH infection which could be explained by the prior deworming of children, modification in environmental and behavioral factors. Questions on effectiveness of annual mass deworming in achieving STH elimination targets need to be investigated further.

Behavioral outcomes of a novel, pelvic nerve damage rat model of fecal incontinence.

Fecal incontinence (FI) has a multifactorial pathophysiology with a severe social impact. The most common cause for FI is pudendal nerve damage, which mostly occurs in women during or after labor. A better understanding of the pathophysiology is required to optimize treatment of FI. In this study, we evaluate the use of a novel pelvic nerve damage rat model of FI. This new model simulates the forces on the pelvic floor during labor by prolonged transvaginal, retro-uterine intrapelvic balloon distention in female rats. Number of fecal pellets produced per day and defecation pattern was compared between the experimental and control group for 2weeks. The cages of the rats were divided in food, nesting and latrine areas to evaluate changes in defecation pattern. The FI Index (FII) was calculated to assess the ratio of fecal pellets between the non-latrine areas and the total number of pellets. A higher score represents more random distribution of feces outside the latrine area. Total number of fecal pellets was higher in the experimental group as compared with the controls. In both groups most fecal pellets were deposited in the nesting area, which is closest to the food area. The experimental group deposited more fecal pellets in the latrine area and had a lower FII indicating less random distribution of feces outside the latrine area. Transvaginal, retro-uterine intrapelvic balloon distention is a safe and feasible animal model simulating the human physiologic impact of labor by downwards pressure on the pelvic floor.

Small‐clawed otters (Aonyx cinereus) in Indonesian rice fields: latrine site characteristics and visitation frequency

AbstractLatrine sites, or areas where otters scent‐mark and deposit feces, are a habitat feature that serve an important role in communication for many otter species. The small‐clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus) inhabits both natural and rice field landscapes in Southeast Asia. However, latrine site use by small‐clawed otters in rice field landscapes is largely unknown. Based on a 53‐week field survey and landscape analyses, we investigated latrine site use by small‐clawed otters in rice field landscapes in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Using land use and/or local environmental variables as predictors, we performed generalized linear model analyses to explain the spatial patterns of latrine site occurrence and otter visitation frequency to latrine sites. We determined that small‐clawed otters use some latrine sites repeatedly over time; 10 latrine sites were still in use more than 7 years after their initial discovery. Generalized linear model analyses revealed that an intermediate number of rice field huts was the single most important predictor of latrine site occurrence, whereas distance to the nearest settlement, distance to the river, and mean water depth of the rice field adjacent to the latrine site were important predictors of otter visitation frequency to latrine sites. These results indicate that the latrine site preferences of small‐clawed otters in rice field landscapes are strongly associated with intermediate levels of rice farming activities. Indonesian rice fields are being degraded or disappearing at an accelerated rate because of land conversion and modernization of agriculture. We emphasize an urgent need for design and implementation of otter‐friendly rice farming to conserve small‐clawed otters.

Introduced Rats and an Endemic Roundworm: Does Rattus rattus Contribute to Baylisascaris procyonis Transmission in California?

The introduced black rat, Rattus rattus, occurs throughout the native range of the raccoon roundworm, Baylisascaris procyonis, and might incorporate into its life cycle if rats consume parasite eggs, acquire viable infections, and are eaten by raccoons. Although rats forage at raccoon latrines, their role in B. procyonis transmission remains unknown. Here I tested the potential for rats to amplify B. procyonis transmission in California by surveying wild rodents for B. procyonis and conducting scavenger trials with the use of motion-activated cameras. Rattus rattus were infected with B. procyonis at intensities more than 100 times greater than that of co-occurring native Reithrodontomys megalotis and Peromyscus maniculatus. Rodent carcasses were scavenged by opossums, skunks, and raccoons, suggesting that these rodents, particularly R. rattus, contribute to B. procyonis transmission in this coastal California ecosystem.

Spatial distribution of soil contaminated with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in relation to the distribution and use of domestic cat defecation sites on dairy farms

Little information is available on the relationship between the spatial distribution of zoonotic parasites in soil and the pattern of hosts’ faeces deposition at a local scale. In this study, the spatial distribution of soil contaminated by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii was investigated in relation to the distribution and use of the defecation sites of its definitive host, the domestic cat (Felis catus). The study was conducted on six dairy farms with a high number of cats (seven to 30 cats). During regular visits to the farms over a 10month period, the cat population and cat defecation sites (latrines and sites of scattered faeces) on each farm were systematically surveyed. During the last visit, 561 soil samples were collected from defecation sites and random points, and these samples were searched for T. gondii DNA using real-time quantitative PCR. Depending on the farm, T. gondii DNA was detected in 37.7–66.3% of the soil samples. The proportion of contaminated samples at a farm was positively correlated with the rate of new cat latrines replacing former cat latrines, suggesting that inconstancy in use of a latrine by cats affects the distribution of T. gondii in soil. On the farms, known cat defecation sites were significantly more often contaminated than random points, but 25–62.5% of the latter were also found to be contaminated. Lastly, the proportion of positive T. gondii samples in latrines was related to the proximity of the cats’ main feeding and resting sites on the farms. This study demonstrates that T. gondii can be widely distributed in farm soil despite the heterogeneous distribution of cat faeces. This supports the hypothesis that farms are hotspot areas for the risk of T. gondii oocyst-induced infection in rural environments.

À propos de quelques pièces de verrerie et de faïence, découvertes en 2014 dans la fosse d’aisances du troisième pavillon du Levant, à Marly

Le troisième pavillon du Levant à Marly était situé au nord-est du Pavillon royal. Les fouilles menées à son emplacement en 2014 ont livré des pièces de verrerie et de faïence d’un grand intérêt. Les pièces de verrerie sont toutes datables du xviiie siècle. Parmi elles, on distingue deux verres à jambe au calice alvéolé, soufflées en France à partir de la fin des années 1720 dans un verre très léger qui s’imposa au moment du déclin du verre de Venise. Les archéologues ont également mis au jour deux gobelets à eau, soufflés dans un verre plus épais. Ces objets, datables des années 1760-1770, tendaient à copier les productions contemporaines à la façon de Bohême ou d’Angleterre, alors très à la mode. Parmi les six pièces de faïence, on peut mentionner une pièce particulièrement intéressante : un grand plat rond, à décor chinois, fabriqué à Delft, à la manufacture du Pot de métal, à l’époque de la direction de Lambertus Cleffius. Les deux aiguières casque, dont la forme est d’origine rouennaise, sont probablement datables de la fin du xviie siècle. Elles portent pour l’une un décor de lambrequins d’inspiration rouennaise et pour l’autre un décor chinois en camaïeu bleu. La découverte du pot de chambre circulaire qui porte la marque de Marly, écrite en entier, est d’un grand intérêt en raison de sa rareté. Il fait sans doute partie des livraisons rouennaises, effectuées en 1781, qui comprenaient en effet des pots de chambre circulaires et ovales.

Activity rhythms and use of nest boxes of juvenile mink in seminatural group housing

The aim of this study was to investigate the activity patterns of American mink (Neovison vison). Twenty mink from a commercial mink farm were housed in a free-range enclosure (290 m2) at the age of 13 weeks. In the enclosure, the mink were offered 20 nest boxes (animal-to-nest-box ratio: 1:1), food ad libitum, and 3 kinds of water basins. The activity rhythms and the use of the nest boxes were assessed by an automatic registration device that recorded the amount of time spent inside or outside the nest box or in the entrance tunnel for each individual mink over a period of 18 weeks between July and December. In addition to analyzing the mink's daily and seasonal activity patterns, we sought to detect any social preferences or preferences for individual nest boxes. Results showed that the mink had crepuscular activity patterns with 2 activity peaks during dusk and dawn and that the former shifted when the daylight period shortened. Throughout the experiment, the activity time spent outside the nest boxes declined with increasing age and decreasing ambient temperature. In addition, the mink showed a preference for nest boxes that faced the feeding lots and not the water basins. During sleep and rest periods, the mink spent high amounts of time using the nest boxes in company. Furthermore, the mink structured their own habitat by using certain nest boxes for sleeping and others as latrine boxes. Small differences between male and female mink existed in their activity (i.e., time spent inside or outside nest boxes) but not in their preference for certain nest boxes or other individuals. Based on our results, any environmental enrichment item should be presented all day long, so each mink has the opportunity to use them individually during their main activity times mostly at dusk and dawn, and their daily handling should be adjusted to this rhythm. A mink-to-nest-box ratio of 1:1 does not seem necessary as juvenile mink often slept in groups of 2 or more animals in 1 nest box. Furthermore, the animals should be given the opportunity to distinguish between a sleeping and a latrine area.

Assessing Potential Environmental Contamination by Baylisascaris procyonis Eggs from Infected Raccoons in Southern Texas.

Baylisascaris procyonis is a large ascarid of raccoons (Procyon lotor) and is a zoonotic threat. We documented the potential rate a raccoon population can contaminate their environment with B. procyonis eggs. We estimated the population size of raccoons using a 9 × 7 trapping grid of Havahart traps, identified locations of raccoon scats through systematic searches, and enumerated the distance B. procyonis eggs passively travel from site of origin upon scat decay. During an 8-week capture period, the raccoon population was estimated to be 19.6 ± 1.3 raccoons within the 63-ha study area (1 raccoon/3.2 ha). There were 781 defecation sites, of which 744 (95.3%) were isolated sites and 37 (4.7%) were latrine sites. Fifty-three (6.8%) defecation sites occurred in areas associated with human structures (commensal zone). Of the noncommensal sites, 9 (1.2%) and 719 (98.8%) sites were identified as latrine sites and isolated scats, respectively. More latrine sites were located within the commensal zone (p < 0.0001, [Formula: see text]) than proportionately available space. Twenty-five raccoon scats containing B. procyonis eggs were allowed to decay on level bare soil by way of simulated rain events, 13 were allowed to desiccate naturally in the environment, and 12 were allowed to desiccate and, subsequently, experience a simulated 1 cm rain event; eggs were found 49 ± 6, 28 ± 8, and 68 ± 8 cm from the initial scat location, respectively. We calculated that a single B. procyonis-infected raccoon could contaminate 0.03 ± 0.01 ha/year with B. procyonis eggs. Our findings indicate that B. procyonis represents a substantial risk to humans in areas where infected raccoons and humans co-occur.

Are latrine sites an accurate predictor of seasonal habitat selection by river otters (Lontra canadensis) in freshwater systems?

Temporal variation in the availability of food resources is a likely driving factor influencing the distribution and habitat use of river otters (Lontra canadensis). Although latrine sites are commonly used to determine habitat selection, it is unclear if latrine sites are an accurate predictor or even a useful indicator of the seasonal habitat use and distribution of river otters. We apply resource selection functions (RSF) to both latrine and telemetry locations to investigate whether latrine sites identified along lake shorelines during the ice-free season are appropriate predictors of otter habitat selection along shorelines during the ice-free and ice-cover seasons in central British Columbia, Canada. We found that the top models describing otter latrine sites and telemetry locations during the ice-free season were similar. The top RSF models and associated coefficients for the ice-cover season differed, however, with otter presence being positively influenced by shallower water depths. For the spatial extrapolation of averaged RSF coefficients, we found that 21.4 and 69.3 % of predicted latrine habitat along lake shorelines overlapped with ice-cover and ice-free habitat generated from telemetry locations, respectively. The location and activity at latrine sites appear to be a useful method for monitoring otter distribution and habitat use during the ice-free, but not during the ice-cover season. The results of our RSF analyses as well as home range measurements of otters in our study area suggest that cold temperatures and ice cover may be a limiting factor for the distribution of otter populations at northern latitudes.

Camera traps at northern river otter latrines enhance carnivore detectability along riparian areas in eastern North America

We evaluated the efficacy of placing camera traps at river otter (Lontra canadensis) latrines (discrete sites in riparian areas where otters regularly deposit scats, urine, and anal secretions) to detect other carnivores occupying Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, New Jersey, USA. We postulated that scents at latrines may serve as an attractant to other carnivores and evaluated this premise by using camera traps to compare carnivore detection rates (overall and by species) and richness (overall and for each survey month) between latrine (n=5) and non-latrine riparian areas (n=5). On average carnivore richness was about 1.7 times higher than that of a non-latrine, and mean richness was higher at latrines for all survey months. Likewise, the overall carnivore detection frequency was 3.5 times greater at latrines, and the detection frequencies for red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), northern raccoons (Procyon lotor), river otters, mink (Neovison vison), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) were greater at latrines. American black bears (Ursus americanus) and eastern coyotes (Canis latrans) where detected more frequently at non-latrines. Our study provides evidence that placement of camera traps at otter latrines may serve as a new and novel approach for monitoring carnivore populations in riparian areas.

Raccoon Roundworm Infection Associated with Central Nervous System Disease and Ocular Disease — Six States, 2013–2015

Baylisascaris procyonis, predominantly found in raccoons, is a ubiquitous roundworm found throughout North America. Although raccoons are typically asymptomatic when infected with the parasite, the larval form of Baylisascaris procyonis can result in fatal human disease or severe neurologic outcomes if not treated rapidly. In the United States, Baylisascaris procyonis is more commonly enzootic in raccoons in the midwestern and northeastern regions and along the West Coast (1). However, since 2002, infections have been documented in other states (Florida and Georgia) and regions (2). Baylisascariasis is not a nationally notifiable disease in the United States, and little is known about how commonly it occurs or the range of clinical disease in humans. Case reports of seven human baylisascariasis cases in the United States diagnosed by Baylisascaris procyonis immunoblot testing at CDC are described, including review of clinical history and laboratory data. Although all seven patients survived, approximately half were left with severe neurologic deficits. Prevention through close monitoring of children at play, frequent handwashing, and clearing of raccoon latrines (communal sites where raccoons defecate) are critical interventions in curbing Baylisascaris infections. Early treatment of suspected cases is critical to prevent permanent sequelae.

English

Disposal of faecal sludge particularly in slum areas is a difficult undertaking given the lack of space and resources. Inaccurate prediction of sludge accumulation rates (SAR) in pit latrines leads to unplanned pit latrine emptying. Given that the users and owners cannot afford the conventional emptying techniques frequently, inappropriate methods such as open defecation and emptying into storm drainages are employed which consequently contribute to environmental and health-related challenges. The main objective of this study was to develop a predictive model for sludge accumulation rates in lined pit latrines in slum areas of Kampala so as to guide routine management of pit latrines. This mathematical model was developed using a mass balance approach with a sample space of 55 lined pits. The developed model gave an average sludge accumulation rate of 81±25 litres/person/year with an efficiency of 0.52 and adjusted R2 value of 0.50. The model was found to be sufficient and most suited for rental and public pit latrines given their bigger percentage in the slums. Further studies should include geo-physical characterization of soil and drainage of pit latrine sites so as to improve model accuracy. Key words: Faecal, sludge accumulation rates, slum areas, lined pit latrines.

Coastal latrine sites as social information hubs and drivers of river otter fission–fusion dynamics

Fission–fusion dynamics, consisting of regular shifts in the size and composition of social groups, are prevalent in animal societies and have implications for foraging success, disease and information transfer, and the fitness of individuals. Thus, the individual and environmental factors that drive social dynamics have become a focus of recent investigations. River otters, Lontra canadensis, in coastal Alaska have a plastic social system, influenced by forage fish availability. These carnivores also regularly frequent terrestrial latrine sites, where they associate and communicate through deposition of odorous substances. To investigate fission–fusion dynamics in this system we (1) deployed camera traps to record social behaviours at latrine sites and (2) attached proximity tags to quantify encounter rates among individuals. Camera detections demonstrated that most latrine visits were of single otters and small groups (2–8 individuals). Fusion events into large groups (up to 18 individuals) were infrequent. Larger groups were recorded at crossover latrines, where trails connected bodies of water, whereas social behaviour was more frequent at spatially central latrines. Visiting otters performed signalling behaviours more frequently than social behaviours, especially at crossover sites. Proximity tag data revealed that the timing of fission and fusion events coincided with latrine visits and that spatial overlap was a good predictor of social interaction. Thus, the structural and spatial features of latrines influence their function as centres of information exchange, social activity hubs and meeting places among small social units, with implications for river otter group dynamics. We conclude that shifting social and environmental conditions may lead to high communication complexity. This unique social system provides novel evidence of the role of olfactory communication in mediating social decisions.

Environmental Temperatures in Southern Texas, USA: Implications for Survival of Baylisascaris procyonis Eggs.

Baylisascaris procyonis is an intestinal nematode of raccoons ( Procyon lotor ). Within intermediate hosts, larvae can cause visceral, ocular, and neural migrans. Humans, especially children, have become infected after ingestion of larvated eggs at raccoon latrines. Eggs of B. procyonis have a thermal death point of 62 C. During 2012, we assessed the likelihood of thermal lethality on B. procyonis eggs in southern Texas. We recorded temperature every 30 min with data loggers placed on the ground in full sun and in the shade, buried 5 cm underground and the ground surface exposed to full sun or in shade, in attics with and without exhaust fans, in woodpiles, in sheds, in tree crevices, and in cars parked in the sun. Such locations represented common raccoon latrine sites or locations where B. procyonis eggs could be found. In addition, data loggers placed about 135 cm above the ground in full sun and in shade were used as controls to acquire ambient temperature. The hottest month was August (maximum 44 C), with 15 d that exceeded 38 C. However, only the car reached the lethal temperature limit, and only for 1 h. Southern Texas has one of the warmest climates in the contiguous US; however, it is unlikely that the southern Texas climate is hot enough to kill B. procyonis eggs.

Association of Juniperus deppeana (Cupressaceae: Pinales) seeds with Mexican cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus cunicularius; Leporidae: Lagomorpha) latrines

ABSTRACTSeed aggregation in latrines of rabbits is a little-studied process that may contribute substantially to seed dispersal and survival. We located Juniperus deppeana trees and the latrines used by the endemic Mexican cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus cunicularius within a 1 ha fragment of J. deppeana-dominated forest and evaluated their patterns of aggregation as microhabitats used by cottontail rabbits to consume the J. deppeana galbulus (fleshy cones) or to deposit their pellets with defecated seeds. Based on mean latrine area, we marked a 2 m × 2 m plot centred on the base of every tree or latrine within the study site. We counted all pellets within each plot and analysed them for the presence of seeds of Juniperus or any other species. We found seeds in 13% of all pellets, mainly those deposited in the latrines. If seeds are scarified by passing through the intestinal tract, seed germination in latrines may increase the probability of survival and establishment. Thus, the community structure and density could change in time as rabbits are changing the places where they place their latrines.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:372FEED4-5DFF-4144-A384-4FB30F480A26

Latrine marking patterns of badgers (Meles meles) with respect to population density and range size

AbstractEuropean badgers (Meles meles) use shared defecation sites, termed latrines, to demarcate group ranges. While some latrines are small, comprising few pits with few fresh scats spread over a small area, others are large, comprising many pits with many fresh droppings and extending over a large area. Although many studies have investigated badger latrine usage patterns, and speculated on latrine function, this variation in relative latrine size remains unexplained. Using nearest neighbor analyses, we analyzed the latrine positioning, use, and inter‐latrine distances from four study areas with different population densities. We found that latrines were spaced regularly throughout the range, and border marking was prioritized, increasing the chances of traversing badgers intercepting a latrine. While the numbers of latrines increased with group range size, the number of fresh feces per latrine decreased, suggesting that fresh feces may be a limiting resource in the maintenance of latrines, and that maintaining latrine spacing pattern is more important than the actual number of fresh feces in each latrine. We thus posited that, where territories are small and groups large, the capacity to produce feces exceeds the minimum need for perimeter marking, resulting in fecal redundancy and large latrines. In contrast, in larger territories, especially when occupied by smaller groups, badgers may experience fecal constraint, thus maintaining smaller latrines. We concluded that latrine maintenance and fecal scent‐marking activity in badgers involves a trade‐off between group size and group range area, leading to different degrees of fecal constraint, while energetic costs of signaling are minimized.