Rabid Dogs Research Articles

English

Reliable data is required on diseases like rabies by policy makers and professionals. This study was therefore aimed at assessing the situation of rabies in and around Addis Ababa using retrospective data obtained during 2008 to 2011. Besides, a questionnaire was used to generate information on factors associated with the occurrence of rabies. A total of 935 brain samples from different species of animals were examined for rabies virus antigen during 2008 to 2011, of which 77.6% (n = 726) of them were tested positive. The highest proportion, 87.2% (n = 633) of the positive cases, was recorded in dogs followed by cats, 5.1% (n = 37). Between the years 2008 and 2011, a total of 1,088 dogs were examined for rabies, of which 801 (73.62%) were confirmed to be rabid. The proportion of rabid female dogs (87.5%) was higher than that of males (73.44%), and dogs 3 to 12 months old were diagnosed with rabies more frequently (76.6%) than dogs belonging to other age category. The highest proportion of rabid dogs was recorded in dogs whose ownership was not known followed by ownerless dogs. Rabies cases were confirmed both in vaccinated and non-vaccinated dogs. The number of confirmed rabies cases was higher during September and lower during November. Significant variation was seen among years in occurrence of rabies. The study shows that the principal vector of rabies in Addis Ababa and its surroundings, but most likely in entire Ethiopia, is the dog. Effective rabies management and control based on confirmed cases is recommended. Key words: Dog, Ethiopia, post-exposure prophylaxis, rabies.

Man as rabid beast: criminals into animals in late medieval France

Recent historical work has underscored the important role of non-human animals in the development of human societies, religions, politics and the human sense of self. By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in France, animals routinely served as human exemplars, while a growing urbanization engendered greater antagonism towards real animals. The fear of rabies increased during a period of plague and endemic warfare. This article explores how, in the context of animal exemplarity and growing human animosity towards dogs and wolves, the figure of the criminal was remade into the mad dog and rabid wolf. This transformation identified criminals with the fear and antagonism directed against real wolves and rabid dogs, and thus supplied a new foundation for the community’s judgement of criminal malfeasance.

Cost-Effectiveness of Canine Vaccination to Prevent Human Rabies in Rural Tanzania

The annual mortality rate of human rabies in rural Africa is 3.6 deaths per 100 000 persons. Rabies can be prevented with prompt postexposure prophylaxis, but this is costly and often inaccessible in rural Africa. Because 99% of human exposures occur through rabid dogs, canine vaccination also prevents transmission of rabies to humans. To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of rabies control through annual canine vaccination campaigns in rural sub-Saharan Africa. We model transmission dynamics in dogs and wildlife and assess empirical uncertainty in the biological variables to make probability-based evaluations of cost-effectiveness. Epidemiologic variables from a contact-tracing study and literature and cost data from ongoing vaccination campaigns. Two districts of rural Tanzania: Ngorongoro and Serengeti. 10 years. Health policymaker. Vaccination coverage ranging from 0% to 95% in increments of 5%. Life-years for health outcomes and 2010 U.S. dollars for economic outcomes. Annual canine vaccination campaigns were very cost-effective in both districts compared with no canine vaccination. In Serengeti, annual campaigns with as much as 70% coverage were cost-saving. Across a wide range of variable assumptions and levels of societal willingness to pay for life-years, the optimal vaccination coverage for Serengeti was 70%. In Ngorongoro, although optimal coverage depended on willingness to pay, vaccination campaigns were always cost-effective and lifesaving and therefore preferred. Canine vaccination was very cost-effective in both districts, but there was greater uncertainty about the optimal coverage in Ngorongoro. Annual canine rabies vaccination campaigns conferred extraordinary value and dramatically reduced the health burden of rabies. National Institutes of Health.

Cases of Dog Bite in Aba, Abia State Nigeria and Its Public Health Significance

Background: Dog bite cases poses a major public health threat in Nigeria. Majority of rabies infection in humans are due to bites from rabid dogs which are mainly local breed. Research carried out in Nigeria has established that some apparently healthy dogs excrete rabies viral antigen in their saliva without showing clinical signs. Aim: This study was carried out to evaluate cases of dog bite in Aba, Abia state Nigeria and its public health significance Methodology: Cases of dog bite in humans reported at the Zonal Veterinary Clinic Aba, Abia state Nigeria from 2007 to 2012 were retrieved. Data on cases of dog bites from the Veterinary clinic record were extracted using a structured questionnaire designed for the study. Results: Out of 215 reported cases of dog bite, 11.6% were victims less than 15 years of age and 44.7% were victims greater than 30 years of age. Local breed of dogs (50.7%) were most involved in the bites, with cross breed (12.6%) being the least. Majority (78.1%) of the dogs involved in the bites were unvaccinated against rabies, with 11.6% having unknown anti-rabies vaccination status. There was no association (X2 =7.38, P > 0.05) between breed and vaccination status of the offending dogs. Dog bite victims were more of males (62.8%) than females (37.2%) with seasonal index showing the greatest values between the months of October to December. Most of the bites (63.7%) occurred arround the lower extremities with bites around the abdominal region (2.8%) being the least. Conclusion: Reports of dog bite cases in humans indicate the need for public health enlightenment campaign programs aimed at educating the public on the need to seek proper post-exposure prophylaxis treatment from health care facilities when bitten by dogs and the need for dog owners to vaccinate their dogs yearly against rabies.

Knowledge, Attitude and Practice about Dog Bite and Rabies Exposure among Dog Meat Consumers and Processors in Abia State, Nigeria

This study was carried out to find out the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) as it relates to rabies exposure among dog meat consumers and processors in Abia State, Nigeria. A total of 100 questionnaires were administered and the respondents comprised of 81 dog consumers and 19 processors. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software was used for the analysis. Results showed that, 100% of the respondents were not previously vaccinated against rabies and consume dog meat in a cooked form. The result also established that 94.7% of the processors and 33.3% of the consumers were previously bitten by dog. Despite the fact that majority of the processors (73.7%) and consumers (71.6%) had prior knowledge of rabies, but on exposure, 72.8% and 70.4% respectively sought traditional methods of treatment following dog bite. A greater percentage (76.5%) believed that clinical rabies had market value more than non clinical rabies because parts from rabid dogs were considered more effective in treatment of some ailments such as malaria, enhancement of libido and spiritual protection, there was no significant association between KAP in relation to dog bite and rabies exposure (p=0.53). This study established that there was a high level of awareness of rabies by consumers and processors in the study area. though rabid dog was not seen as a public health concern but rather associated with medicinal and spiritual values. This belief may pose a health hazard and may militate against the control of rabies in the state.

In Vivo and In Vitro Cross Neutralization Studies of Local Rabies Virus Isolates with ERA Based Cell Culture Anti-Rabies Vaccine Produced In Ethiopia

Rabies is a worldwide problem, and the case is most severe in developing countries where cell culture anti-rabies vaccines are unaffordable or the available nervous tissue-derived vaccines are of questionable immunogenicity and may cause neurological complications. The aim of this research was to study cross protection of local rabies virus isolates with Evenyl Roktincki Abelseth (ERA) based cell culture anti-rabies vaccine produced in Ethiopia and to develop challenge virus from local isolates. The viruses were isolated from rabid dogs’ brains and human saliva, and adapted on Swiss albino mice and cell lines. Cross protection with ERA based vaccine was studied by in vivo and in vitro methods. For in vivo method, a group of mice were immunized on day zero and seven with 0.5 ml (1:5 dilutions) of ERA based cell culture anti-rabies vaccine produced locally. On day fourteenth, mice were challenged with working dilution of each local isolates and one group with challenge virus standard (CVS-11), and observed for further 14 days. High protection was recorded in CVS-11 challenged mice and low protection in all local isolates (p=0.045); specifically protection to HOS challenged mice was very low. In vitro test was done by fluorescent antibody virus neutralization (FAVN) test on BHK-21 cell lines. Sera from dog immunized with locally produced vaccine and OIE serum were incubated with local virus isolates and CVS-11 for 48 hours in the presence of cell lines. Maximum antibody titer (2.74 IU/ml) was obtained with CVS-11 challenge virus and minimum antibody titer (1.55 IU/ml) was obtained with cow origin (CO) virus isolate. All locally isolated rabies virus show low antibody titer when compared to CVS-11 and PV-12 (p=0.000). From the results, it can be concluded that local isolates have some genetic variation from fixed virus strain which can affect efficacy of the candidate vaccine and potency value should be set in-terms of local isolate using as challenge virus. Generally, the exact genetic relationship should be studied by molecular techniques and locally isolated virus should be used as challenge virus for vaccine quality control.

Adaptation of Local Rabies Virus Isolates to High Growth Titer and Determination of Pathogenicity to Develop Canine Vaccine in Ethiopia

Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease which causes acute encephalitis in humans and animals. The case is most severe in developing countries where cell culture derived anti-rabies vaccines are unaffordable or the available nervous tissue-derived vaccines are of questionable immunogenicity and may cause neurological complications. The aim of this research was to adapt local rabies virus isolates on BHK-21 and to study pathogenicity to intramuscular route of inoculation for canine vaccine development. The viruses were isolated from rabid dogs’ brain and human saliva, and adapted to Swiss albino mice brain and cell lines by several blind passages. By titration, a minimum of 106.5TCID50/ml (in vitro) and 104.5MICLD50/0.03 ml (in vivo) virus titer were obtained. For pathogenicity study, mice were inoculated intramuscularly with 250MICLD50/0.1 ml of each adapted virus isolate and observed for 45 days. Only two virus isolates, human origin sululta (HOS) and dog origin (DO) caused 12.5% death. This can show the phylogroup origin of the viruses indicating phylogroup I origin of these virus isolates with decline in virulence. Decline in pathogenicity may be due to adaptation of the viruses to mice brain and cell lines to increase virus infectivity titer. Generally, the exact genetic relationship with fixed rabies virus strain should be studied by molecular techniques and canine anti-rabies vaccine develops from locally isolated viruses.

Profile of dog bite victims in Jos Plateau State, Nigeria: a review of dog bite records (2006-2008)

INTRODUCTION: Dogs are the major reservoir of rabies virus in Nigeria; transmission to humans is via a bite by rabid dog. Between 2006 and 2008 National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) rabies laboratory reported increased numbers of rabies in dogs and human dog bites. The objective of the study was to use veterinary and health records to develop a profile of bite victims and recommend appropriate public health actions. METHODS: We used the dog brain specimen result register of Rabies Laboratory of NVRI, from

Profile of dog bite victims in Jos Plateau State, Nigeria: a review of dog bite records (2006-2008)

Introduction: Dogs are the major reservoir of rabies virus in Nigeria; transmission to humans is via a bite by rabid dog. Between 2006 and 2008 National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) rabies laboratory reported increased numbers of rabies in dogs and human dog bites. The objective of the study was to use veterinary and health records to develop a profile of bite victims and recommend appropriate public health actions.

Public Health Investigation in a Military Camp After Diagnosis of Rabies in a Dog—Afghanistan, 2012: Table 1

Rabies is one of the risks to which travelers are exposed when going abroad. During the summer of 2012, a rabid dog died in an International Military Transit Camp in Afghanistan, leading to a public health investigation briefly reported here. The lessons learned from this episode are that such investigations are complex and that information for travelers needs to be improved.

Costs of Rabies Control: An Economic Calculation Method Applied to Flores Island

BackgroundRabies is a zoonotic disease that, in most human cases, is fatal once clinical signs appear. The disease transmits to humans through an animal bite. Dogs are the main vector of rabies in humans on Flores Island, Indonesia, resulting in about 19 human deaths each year. Currently, rabies control measures on Flores Island include mass vaccination and culling of dogs, laboratory diagnostics of suspected rabid dogs, putting imported dogs in quarantine, and pre- and post-exposure treatment (PET) of humans. The objective of this study was to estimate the costs of the applied rabies control measures on Flores Island.Methodology/principal findingsA deterministic economic model was developed to calculate the costs of the rabies control measures and their individual cost components from 2000 to 2011. The inputs for the economic model were obtained from (i) relevant literature, (ii) available data on Flores Island, and (iii) experts such as responsible policy makers and veterinarians involved in rabies control measures in the past. As a result, the total costs of rabies control measures were estimated to be US$1.12 million (range: US$0.60–1.47 million) per year. The costs of culling roaming dogs were the highest portion, about 39 percent of the total costs, followed by PET (35 percent), mass vaccination (24 percent), pre-exposure treatment (1.4 percent), and others (1.3 percent) (dog-bite investigation, diagnostic of suspected rabid dogs, trace-back investigation of human contact with rabid dogs, and quarantine of imported dogs).Conclusions/significanceThis study demonstrates that rabies has a large economic impact on the government and dog owners. Control of rabies by culling dogs is relatively costly for the dog owners in comparison with other measures. Providing PET for humans is an effective way to prevent rabies, but is costly for government and does not provide a permanent solution to rabies in the future.

Molecular characterization of a rabies virus isolate from a rabid dog in Hanzhong District, Shaanxi Province, China

A canine rabies virus, Shaanxi-HZ-6, was isolated in Shaanxi Province, China, in 2009. Its genome has been completely sequenced and found to be closely related to the China I rabies virus strains widely circulating in China. The genomic length was 11,923 base pairs, and the overall organization of the genome was similar to that of other rabies virus isolates. Compared with isolates CQ92 and J, 84 amino acid substitutions (7 in the N gene, 15 in P, 6 in M, 25 in G, 31 in L) were observed in strain Shaanxi-HZ-6. Amino acid substitutions of R264H and V332I were noted in the G protein antigenic site I and site III, respectively. Residue 333 of the G protein, which is considered to be associated with pathogenicity, was Arg in Shaanxi-HZ-6. These and other substitutions may help provide an explanation why the China I lineage strain maintains its prevalence in China.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding rabies in Filipinos following implementation of the Bohol Rabies Prevention and Elimination Programme.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding rabies in Bohol, Philippines were assessed following introduction of the Bohol Rabies Prevention and Elimination Programme. A cross-sectional questionnaire was administered to 460 households chosen utilizing the WHO's Expanded Programme on Immunization coverage cluster survey technique with population proportionate to size. Scores for KAP were evaluated using linear regression. The majority of households had heard of rabies (94%); however, specific knowledge of rabies was limited. Only 18% knew to report a suspected rabid dog to the authorities. In multivariate analyses, having known someone with rabies had the greatest effect on knowledge scores. Employment (professional or non-professional) had the greatest effect on attitudes scores, and only the knowledge score was significantly associated with higher practices scores. Several factors, notably, personal experience with rabies, affect KAP in Bohol. The programme should continue to focus on education and include personal accounts to underscore why rabies prevention and control is so important.

Perception of the public on the common zoonotic diseases in Jimma, Southwestern Ethiopia

This study was conducted with the objective of assessing the perception of the public on common zoonotic diseases in Southwestern Ethiopia using a face-to-face interviewing technique. The respondents were stratified into four groups, namely: farmers (n=48), smallholder dairy farmers (n=44), butchers (n=34) and city residents (n=49). Many of them (97.1%) knew rabies was a zoonotic disease contracted via the bite and contact with saliva of a rabid dog. There was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) in the level of awareness about rabies in the four respondents groups. Taeniasis was the second most recognised zoonotic disease (84.3%). Anthrax was known by 55.4% of respondents, whereas only 29.1% of them knew tuberculosis can be transmitted from cattle to humans. There was a significant (P<0.05) difference in the level of awareness with regard to zoonotic tuberculosis in the study groups where small holder dairy farmers had the highest awareness and traditional farmers had the lowest awareness. Majority of the respondents consume raw milk (66.8%), however, only 11.4% of them have knowledge about transmission of TB through raw milk and meat consumption. Awareness about echinococcosis was lower (4%) than other zoonotic diseases. The zoonotic importance of brucellosis was reported by none of the respondents. In general, the present study revealed a very low level of awareness by the public about major zoonotic diseases, signifying the need for public health promotion through education and inter-disciplinary one health approach with close collaboration among veterinarians, public health practitioners and policy makers. Key words: Perception, public, transmission, zoonotic, disease, Ethiopia.

Rabies Immunization of Travelers in a Canine Rabies Endemic Area

Travelers to countries where rabies is endemic may be at risk of rabies exposure. We assessed rabies immunization of travelers attending a travel clinic in Thailand. The medical charts of international travelers who came for preexposure (PrEP) or postexposure (PEP) rabies prophylaxis at the Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute (QSMI), Bangkok, Thailand between 2001 and 2011 were retrospectively reviewed. A total of 782 travelers, including 188 patients who presented with mammal-associated injuries and possible rabies exposures and 594 persons who came requesting PrEP, were studied. Of the travelers who received PEP, only 27 (14.3%) had been previously immunized against rabies and 141 (75.0%) cases experienced high-risk WHO category III exposure. Most of the incidents were unprovoked. Although promptly seeking medical services after the injuries, 114 (60.7%) travelers did not undertake any first-aid care for their wounds. Of these travelers, 19 (10.3%) received intradermal rabies vaccination as they could complete the series here. Rabies immunoglobulin was given to 118 of 121 (97.5%) patients. About one fourth of recipients could accomplish the full schedule at QSMI. Among visitors who requested PrEP, 454 (76.4%) persons had just started their first dose. Among all visitors, 263 (44.3%) were Japanese. The number of Japanese asking for PrEP was higher in 2006, the year when cases of imported human rabies to Japan were reported. This trend has sustained since then. Two (0.3%) travelers were bitten by suspected rabid dogs before they completed their PrEP program. Rabies prophylaxis is an important decision for each traveler. It should be made before visiting endemic areas.

The Incredible Charlotte Sycamore by Kate Maddison (review)

Reviewed by: The Incredible Charlotte Sycamore by Kate Maddison Alaine Martaus Maddison, Kate . The Incredible Charlotte Sycamore. Holiday House, 2013. [288p]. ISBN 978-0-8234-2737-6 $17.95 Reviewed from galleys R Gr. 6-10. Sixteen-year-old Charlotte Sycamore enjoys a privileged upbringing, living in Buckingham Palace with her father, the personal surgeon to Queen Victoria. What Charlotte really wants, though, is adventure, so she sneaks out at night to practice sword-fighting with her servant-class friends, including a handsome young man just returned from sea. When Charlotte and her friends are attacked by seemingly rabid dogs, one friend is severely injured and she herself is bitten, and Charlotte discovers that the dogs are in fact poison-delivering mechanical creatures. Desperate to save her friends and herself, Charlotte works to uncover the mystery behind the dogs and their poison and discovers a threat to her queen and country. A thoroughly engrossing read, this alternative history adventure is an enjoyable mixture of scariness and sweetness. The underlying mystery and Charlotte's rebellious antics will have readers swiftly turning pages to see what happens next, while the plentiful period detail and light-touch romance give them a reason to linger. Despite her girl-power tendencies, Charlotte retains a sense of historical authenticity as she struggles with the limits of gender and class. Steampunk elements are delightfully realized, intriguing but not overwhelming, making the novel an excellent entry point for those who are new to the genre. Likewise fans of Reeve's Larklight series (Larklight, BCCB 2/07) or Carriger's recent Etiquette and Espionage (BCCB 2/13) will find another worthy heroine to root for and—hopefully—more sequels to enjoy. Copyright © 2013 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Investigation on a Dog Rabies Case and Rabid Dog Meat Consumption, Nakhon Phanom Province, Thailand, 2011

In March 2011, public fear on health risk of rabid dog meat consumption was emerged in Nakhon Phanom Province. Investigation was conducted to identify extent of exposure and recommendation for rabies prevention. We surveyed in affected villages to find out rabies cases and exposed contacts among dogs, cats and humans. Persons who had contacted with the rabid dog, its carcass or meat were interviewed about their contacts, knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) towards rabies. The survey revealed that three owned dogs had been bitten by the rabid dog and 58 persons contacted it. Among the contact persons, 11.3% (bitten by the rabid dog, contact with carcass or saliva, butchered or cooked) and 19.0% (contacted dogs bitten by the rabid dog) fit in the WHO criteria as exposed and possible exposed persons respectively. Thirty two persons who ate well cooked meat of the rabid dog were classified as non-exposed persons. One third of the contact persons did not know about rabies. Persons who ate rabid dog meat had less knowledge on rabies reservoir and transmission compared with those did not eat (P-value &lt;0.05). Contact persons and dogs were provided with post-exposure vaccination; none of them developed rabies. Several types of exposure, except ingesting well cooked meat, posed risk of rabies and local public should be educated about these for better personal protective practices.

Articulating a Geography of Pain: Metaphor, Memory, and Movement in Helena Maria Viramontes's Their Dogs Came with Them

Los Angeles is a metropolis physically interrupted by freeways and demographically fragmented into isolated pockets of race and class. The geographer Edward W. Soja describes contemporary LA as being “difficult to grasp persuasively in a temporal narrative for it generates too many conflicting images, confounding historization, always seeming to stretch laterally instead of unfolding sequentially” (Postmodern 222). Helena Maria Viramontes explores the sprawled and concurrent identities of LA using a nonlinear narrative focused on the disenfranchised residents of East Los Angeles, communicating this “difficult to grasp” urban space through the novel’s fractured narrative style and content. This article analyzes how Viramontes’s novel Their Dogs Came with Them (2007) articulates East Los Angeles through the use of imagery, memory, and movement. The first section deals with the figurative language—metaphor—that binds the characters to their environment and vice versa. The second section analyzes the theme of memory and its impermanence as it relates to the fractured nature of this city and its disruptive freeways. Finally, this article examines the “tactile apprehension,” a la Michel de Certeau’s theorizing of walking in the city, found in the different modes and velocities of transportation as concurrent but divergent modes of articulation (Practice 97). I argue that the novel presents multiple experiences of the city, which reveal not only the way the geography impacts the community it contains but also ways the Latino community can resist the erasive consequences of race and class by forming independent spatial meaning. Set in East Los Angeles during the 1960s, Their Dogs Came with Them tells the story of four female protagonists who struggle through the isolation and turbulence plaguing their community. A high school student living with her grandparents, Ermilia Zumaya undergoes a political awakening. Ana works in an office and struggles to take care of her mentally unstable brother Ben. Tranquilina, the daughter of missionaries, contemplates the role of faith in her violent surroundings. Finally, Antonia Gamboa, a young female gang member known as “Turtle,” lives on the street while passing as a male. A major source of disruption is the construction of freeways, which has led to entire neighborhoods being razed and bulldozed into oblivion. Furthermore, a Quarantine Authority, set up to protect the residents from rabid dogs, polices and regulates the movement of the community. The action of the novel moves fluidly between the past and the present with a few blank lines between paragraphs marking a leap

Rabid Fox Bites and Human Rabies in a Village Community in Southern India: Epidemiological and Laboratory Investigations, Management and Follow-Up

Human rabies transmitted from wild animals is rarely reported in endemic countries like India, where nearly 95% deaths occur due to bites from rabid dogs. In this paper, we report an incidence of rabid fox bites in a village in southern part of India involving 18 individuals, including 4 children. All people had category III exposures, including bites on the face and neck. The attacking fox was killed by the forest department and buried immediately. The victims of the fox bite did not receive appropriate and adequate postexposure treatment. Thirteen days after the bite, one of the bite victims developed typical symptoms of furious rabies and died 2 days later in a local hospital. His brain tissue, obtained at autopsy, was strongly positive for rabies by fluorescent antibody technique (FAT) and virus isolation. Panic prevailed in the community and the rest of the 17 cases were referred to our institute for advice and further management. Only 35% of them had protective levels of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA). All of the patients were administered with an 8-site intradermal regimen with purified chick embryo cell (PCEC) vaccine and were followed up regularly. All of them developed adequate titers (>0.5 IU/mL) of RVNA 7 days later. They were under regular follow-up and after nearly 2 years none have developed rabies. The partial Nucleoprotein (N) gene sequencing of the virus isolate from the patient who died of rabies had close homology with species I (prototype rabies) sequences available in GenBank and our own past isolates from dogs and humans, thus confirming that virus spillover from wildlife to domestic dogs continues to occur. This episode should prompt health authorities to focus more attention on training rural medical practitioners in state-of-the-art modern prophylactic measures.

Staging Baghdadi Bath on the Western Stage: Toward a Theatre of Trauma

Staging Baghdadi Bath on the Western Stage:Toward a Theatre of Trauma James Al-Shamma (bio) Jawad Al Assadi's 2005 Baghdadi Bath depicts two Iraqi brothers as they struggle to survive in Iraq, both before and during the 2003 US-led invasion and ensuing occupation. The brothers wash and quarrel in the Turkish-style bathhouse that serves as the setting for much of the play. The two are, as it were, mired in filth, corrupted by their engagement as bus drivers with both Saddam's thugs and American soldiers. They narrate atrocities in turn. The younger, Hamiid, is complicit in transporting political prisoners to their deaths by firing squad under Saddam's regime and then relaying their corpses to a mass gravesite. Midway through the play, he describes the execution of prisoners by Iraqi soldiers in sordid detail: They made the prisoners get out [of the bus], stand in random order, and then suddenly they started shooting. The prisoners fell without saying a word. The air was engulfed in a horrible silence. I was overwhelmed with fear . . . with filth . . . They didn't even bother to bury these men where they'd murdered them. They wanted to desecrate them even further, so they carried them with blood dripping from their bodies into the bus. They ordered me to drive somewhere else . . . . I wanted to puke. The bus reeked of blood. They ceremoniously and joyfully carried the corpses out of the bus and threw them in a ditch . . . . The officer in charge came to me and ordered me to clean the bus and wipe away all traces of blood . . . . They turned me into a mop they used to clean up their crimes. I got sick. I puked blood.1 Immediately following this, Hamiid is confined in a military hospital for a month and refused payment for his services. In the final episode of the play, Majiid suffers at the hands of American soldiers after the two attempt to transport a political candidate from Amman, Jordan to Baghdad. Just after they cross the border back into Iraq, an exploding cigar kills the candidate. Trapped in a battle zone, Majiid buries the remains, but is then forced to unearth them at the command of American soldiers: [End Page 105] The only thing I could think of was to bury the corpse right there. I dug with my hands and fingernails. I dug and dug and dug. The rabid dogs came closer to the bus. I carried the pieces of the corpse out of the bus and threw them in the hole and covered them . . . covered them with dust. It was so vile and horrible . . . . For three days and three nights the tanks passed in front of me and circled around me . . . . Soldiers passed in front of me without speaking . . . . They wouldn't let me move . . . . I didn't know what to do, Hamoud. I told them the truth. They told me to dig him up. I dug and dug with my hands . . . with my fingernails. I held up his feet . . . his head . . . his hands. They started to laugh. They aimed their guns at me . . . Then they pushed me into the grave and covered me with dust. And then . . . they disappeared.2 These are the concluding lines of the play, after which Hamiid carries Majiid to the shower and bathes him. In this essay, I sketch a theoretical framework through which a play like Baghdadi Bath, which depicts trauma, may affect its audience—particularly how a play by an Arabic playwright about a crisis in the Middle East could affect a Western, and specifically American audience. Baghdadi Bath was staged first in the Middle East, in Arabic for Arabic-speaking audiences. It premiered at the Damascus Theatre Festival in 2005 under the direction of Al Assadi, then played at the Cairo International Festival of Experimental Theatre, and the Marignan Theatre in Beirut, both in 2006. It was first staged in the West, in an English translation by Robert Myers and Nada Saab, at Dartmouth College in 2006. The same translation was presented at Vassar College in 2007,3 and featured in the supertitles of the Arabic-language production at La MaMa E.T.C...