Quinoa Seeds Research Articles

Permittivity measurements for raw and boiled quinoa seeds versus temperature, bulk density, and moisture content

Quinoa is a nutrient-rich pseudocereal that is gaining popularity in European countries since it is gluten-free and an interesting source of fat, proteins, minerals, and amino acids. However, up to date, the electric permittivity of quinoa seeds has not been measured and, therefore, this hampers the possibility of designing optimized recipes for its microwave processing. In this work, the permittivity of both raw and boiled quinoa seeds is measured around 2.45 GHz at several conditions for temperature, moisture content, and bulk density. The grain kernel permittivity is also estimated from the Complex Refractive Index (CRI) mixture equation and different bulk density measurements. The obtained results show different temperature behaviours for raw and boiled seeds, whereas the permittivity of quinoa seeds versus moisture content and bulk density was as expected: the permittivity (both the dielectric constant and loss factor) levels increased as the observed variables did. From the measured data, it can be concluded that both raw and boiled quinoa can be processed with microwave technology, although care must be taken with raw quinoa grain kernels since the permittivity increases significantly with temperature, and a thermal runaway may occur.

Characterization of quinoa-wheat flour blend for the preparation of dry cake

The current study aimed at the quinoa-wheat composite flour's characterization (including total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity) as well as its effect on dry cake sensory quality. Findings revealed a rise in ash content, fat, protein, and crude fiber of composite-flour (0.56-1.23%, 1.13-1.76%, 10.14-11.02%, and 0.23-1.04%, respectively) with an increase of quinoa flour (5-20%). The addition of quinoa flour to the composite flour enhanced cake texture (0.26-.70 kg), but it also decreased L-value of cake crumb (55.29-50.73). Total flavonoids (56.44-59.48 mg QE/100 g) and antioxidant activity (4.66-9.76%) increased as quinoa flour was increased, whereas total phenolics (8.68-5.46 mgGAE/g) decreased. By mixing wheat flour with quinoa flour, the nutritional value of wheat flour was increased. During sensory evaluation, the cake made from composite-flour containing 10% quinoa-flour scored the highest overall acceptability. Sensory quality of last two treatments, which included 15% and 20% quinoa flour, was lower. Quinoa seeds had a better nutritional profile than wheat, with higher levels of amino acids, minerals, dietary fibers, and oil. Since wheat is a staple food in Pakistan, adding quinoa-flour would help to reduce malnutrition in Pakistan. Furthermore, no previous research on the suitability of quinoa-wheat flour for dry cake has been conducted on Pakistani wheat flour.

The identification of suitable internal reference genes in quinoa seeds subjected to abscisic acid and gibberellin treatment

Abstract: Quinoa has been recognized as the sole “comprehensive nutritional crop”; however, it is susceptible to pre-harvest sprouting (PHS). While quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) has been extensively employed for gene expression level detection, the selection of suitable reference genes is imperative to ensure precise gene expression quantification across diverse conditions. This study aims to identify stable reference genes in quinoa seeds under ABA and GA, in order to provide a basis for subsequent research on PHS. Seeds were subjected to different concentrations of ABA and GA (10 μM, 50 μM, 100 μM, and 200 μM). The most suitable treatment concentration was determined based on seed viability. Here, MON1, GAPDH, EIF3, EF1α, ACT, TUB1, and TUB6 were selected as candidate genes. The suitability of these reference genes under different conditions was assessed using various methods including Ct values, geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, Delta Ct, and RefFinder. Based on the results obtained from the hormone experiments, it was observed that the application of 100 μM ABA and 200 μM GA yielded the most advantageous outcomes. Additionally, the most appropriate reference genes for different treatments are ACT and TUB1 (H2O treatment), EIF3 and MON1 (ABA, GA treatment and also for the combined data set of the three groups). However, GAPDH exhibited the least stability across all treatments. In summary, ACT is recommended as the reference gene for natural quinoa germination, while EIF3 and MON1 should be used for ABA and GA treatments.

Determination and analysis of basic physical and contact mechanics parameters of quinoa seeds by DEM

Determination and analysis of basic physical and contact mechanics parameters of quinoa seeds by DEM

Characterization of physicochemical, rheological, aroma, and sensory properties of spreadable processed cheese supplemented with chia, quinoa, and teff seeds

The physicochemical, rheological, aroma, and sensory properties of spreadable processed cheese supplemented with chia, quinoa, and teff seeds were evaluated. The changes in proximate composition, color values, rheological parameters, volatile profile, sensory, and microbiological properties of the cheese samples stored at 4 °C for 90 days were assessed. Significant differences in the initial contents of dry matter, protein, and fat were observed among the cheese samples. The pH was affected by the storage time and type of added pseudocereal. Moreover, the storage time and type of pseudocereal interaction affected the titratable acidity and color parameters of the cheese samples. The water-soluble nitrogen content increased slightly in all cheese samples during storage. The cheese samples supplemented with pseudocereals exhibited a pseudoplastic behavior. The consistency index of the cheese samples ranged from 2.277 to 2.550 Pa.sn, and the flow behavior index ranged from 0.528 to 0.665. The counts of total coliform and yeast-mold in all cheese samples were <1 log CFU/g cheese, and the counts of total mesophilic aerobic bacteria ranged from 2.21 log CFU/g cheese to 2.76 log CFU/g cheese. A total of 27 volatile compounds, consisting of acids, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and terpenes, were identified in the cheese samples. The amounts of butanoic acid, hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, and nonanoic acid in all cheese samples were higher than that of other volatiles, with the amounts ranging from 639 µg/kg to 3284 µg/kg, 711.20 µg/kg to 2723.27 µg/kg, 187.60 µg/kg to 722.71 µg/kg, and 75.42 µg/kg to 206.02 µg/kg, respectively. The most preferred cheese in terms of sensory properties was the control sample, followed by the SCT, SCQ, and SCC samples.

Unique nutritional features that distinguish Amaranthus cruentus L. and Chenopodium quinoa Willd seeds

Univariate (Analysis of Variance_ANOVA) and multivariate (Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA)) analyses were performed in order to classify and authenticate the seeds from different varieties of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Will.), and amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.). The univariate analysis showed differences between species for sucrose, K, Ca, unsaturated fatty acids, and the ω6/ω3 ratio. Nevertheless, to strengthen this classification, a PCA was applied separating the samples in 2 groups; group 1, formed by quinoa seeds, presented higher contents of margaroleic, eicosadienoic, behenic, erucic, linolenic, linoleic, and gadoleic acids, proteins, sucrose, and total sugars. Group 2, formed by amaranth seeds, showed positive values for Mn, Mg, Fe, P, Zn, Ca, fiber, glucose, and ω6/ω3 ratio. Furthermore, the CDA models developed resulted in a probability of event of 100% when classifying the samples in the groups quinoa or amaranth, highlighting the good sensitivity of the models used.

Effects of Dietary Quinoa Seeds on Cecal Microorganisms and Muscle Fatty Acids of Female Luhua Chickens.

To study the effects of adding quinoa seed (raw grain) to the diet of the Luhua chicken on the cecal microorganism abundance and fatty acid composition of muscle, 120 49-day-old healthy female dewormed Luhua chickens (body weight 1476.21 ± 101.39 g) were randomly divided into 4 groups, with 3 replicates in each group and 10 chickens in each repetition. The control group (CK group) was fed a basal diet and the experimental groups were fed with 4% (Q4), 8% (Q8), and 12% (Q12) quinoa seed (raw grain) added to the basal diet for 75 days. After 121 days of age, the animals were slaughtered and the 16S rRNA characteristics of cecal flora, as well as composition and content of fatty acids in muscle, were determined and analyzed. The content of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs), docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n3; DHA) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) in the breast and leg muscles significantly increased in the experimental groups supplemented with quinoa seeds (p < 0.05). However, the content of saturated fatty acids (SAFs) and ratio of n-6/n-3 in breast muscle and leg muscle significantly decreased (p < 0.05). In addition, adding a certain percentage of quinoa seeds in the diet can also affect the community composition and content of microorganisms in the ceca of Luhua chickens. At the phylum level, the Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Synergistetes and Melainabacteria in experimental groups (Q4, Q8 and Q12) were significantly lower than those in the CK group (p < 0.05). At the genus level, Desulfovibrio, Synergistes, Olsenella, Parabacteroides, Mailhella, Sutterella and Ruminiclostridiu in group Q4 were significantly lower than those in group CK (p < 0.05) while Faecalibacterium in Q8 group, and Lawsonia and Faecalibacterium in Q12 group were significantly higher than those in the CK group (p < 0.05). Enrichment analysis of the microbial function showed that compared with the CK group, Metabolism and Enzyme Families were significantly enriched in the Q4 group (p < 0.05). Cellular Processes and Signaling were significantly enriched in the Q8 group (p < 0.05). The association analysis of fatty acids with microorganisms showed that the abundance of Faecalibacterium, Lawsonia and Meagmonas was significantly correlated with partial SFAs and UFAs (p < 0.05). In conclusion, adding quinoa seeds to diets significantly increased the content of muscle DHA, UFAs and n-3 PUFAs. The content of SAFs and the n-6/n-3 ratio were significantly reduced. Taken together, quinoa can effectively improve the cecal microbiota structure, inhibit the number of harmful bacteria and increase the number of beneficial bacteria, regulating the intestinal environment and promoting the body health of female Luhua chickens.

Purification of an antiviral protein from the seeds of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and characterization of its antiviral properties.

Plant viral pathogens cause damaging diseases in many agriculture systems, and emerging viral infections are a serious threat for providing adequate food to a continuously growing population. Recent studies of biogenic substances have provided new opportunities for producing novel antiviral agents. The present work has been conducted to evaluate the antiviral activity of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds crude extract. The antiviral activity was retained in different buffer solutions of various pH ranges (5.2-8.5) and remained after the diafiltration process. The putative virus inhibitor was sensitive to treatment with sodium dodecyl sulfate and trichloroacetic acid. An antiviral protein with ~ 25kDa molecular weight was isolated from the seed quinoa extract using ammonium sulfate precipitation, anion and cation exchange chromatography. The purified protein (Quinoin-I) significantly inhibited TMV on tobacco leaves with an IC50 value at a 6.81μg/ml concentration. Enzyme activity assay revealed the RNase activity of Quinoin-I, and this feature was retained in the presence of β-mercaptoethanol and ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid. This antiviral protein has been shown as a promising leading molecule for further development as a novel antiviral agent.

TMT proteomics analysis of a pseudocereal crop, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), during seed maturation.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an Andean native crop, is increasingly popular around the world due to its high nutritional content and stress tolerance. The production and the popularity of this strategic global food are greatly restricted by many limiting factors, such as seed pre-harvest sprouting, bitter saponin, etc. To solve these problems, the underlying mechanism of seed maturation in quinoa needs to be investigated. In this study, based on the investigation of morphological characteristics, a quantitative analysis of its global proteome was conducted using the combinational proteomics of tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling and parallel reaction monitoring (PRM). The proteome changes related to quinoa seed maturation conversion were monitored to aid its genetic improvement. Typical changes of morphological characteristics were discovered during seed maturation, including mean grain diameter, mean grain thickness, mean hundred-grain weight, palea, episperm color, etc. With TMT proteomics analysis, 581 differentially accumulated proteins (DAPs) were identified. Functional classification analysis and Gene Ontology enrichment analysis showed that most DAPs involved in photosynthesis were downregulated, indicating low levels of photosynthesis. DAPs that participated in glycolysis, such as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, pyruvate decarboxylase, and alcohol dehydrogenase, were upregulated to fulfill the increasing requirement of energy consumption during maturation conversion. The storage proteins, such as globulins, legumins, vicilins, and oleosin, were also increased significantly during maturation conversion. Protein-protein interaction analysis and function annotation revealed that the upregulation of oleosin, oil body-associated proteins, and acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 2 resulted in the accumulation of oil in quinoa seeds. The downregulation of β-amyrin 28-oxidase was observed, indicating the decreasing saponin content, during maturation, which makes the quinoa "sweet". By the PRM and qRT-PCR analysis, the expression patterns of most selected DAPs were consistent with the result of TMT proteomics. Our study enhanced the understanding of the maturation conversion in quinoa. This might be the first and most important step toward the genetic improvement of quinoa.

Quinoa seeds (Chenopodium Quinoa): Nutritional value and potential biological effects on hyperglycemic rats

Quinoa seeds have an excellent nutrient characterization and contains many phytochemicals which play an important health role. The current study pointed to the chemical composition, minerals content, active compounds (polyphenols, flavonoids and tocopherols), vitamins, amino acids, and fatty acids of quinoa seeds (Chinopodium quinoa). Also, evaluation of quinoa seeds on plasma glucose and lipid profiles in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in male rats. Rats were split into three groups,the firstgroup was the normal control, the second group was the diabetic control, and the third group was diabetic rats treated with quinoa seeds. Chemical composition revealed that the percent of moisture, protein, fat, fiber, ash and calculated carbohydrates were 11.20 %, 13.64 %, 5.89 %, 6.7 %, 3.1 % and 70.67 % respectively. The total essential amino acid of quinoa seed was 4.88 g/100 g sample. The results indicate that serum alanine amino transferase (ALT), aspartate amino transferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine and urea were significantly unchanged in diabetic rats whereas, statistically decreased in diabetic rats treated with quinoa seeds compared with control rats. Total serum lipids, total cholesterol, and low density lipoproteins (LDL) cholesterol levels were significantly increased in diabetic rats, while high density lipoproteins (HDL) cholesterol levels were decreased, compared to control rats. Otherwise, no significant effect was observed in these parameters between the rats in group 3 and the control group. Eating quinoa seeds among diabetic rats had a hypoglycemic effect and caused the best changes regarding cholesterol, HDL and LDL levels. The results obtained suggest that quinoa may become important as an inexpensive and unique natural source of anti-diabetes, and thus quinoa seed is a promising complementary therapeutic agent against diabetes.

The Salinity and Irrigation Methods Affect the Content of Macronutrients in Different Organs of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)

ABSTRACT Salinity causes nutrient imbalances in plants, even in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a halophyte with high nutritional value. Current investigation is a complementary study, carried out in continuation of the previous research on quinoa which illustrated that the Salinity Threshold Value (STV) of quinoa varies during different stages of its growth; it was performed in three cultivation periods, each period containing two irrigation methods (IM): i) Irrigating by ‎constant levels of ‎water salinity (ECi) (i.e. 0.3, 10, 15, 20, 25dSm−1) regardless of STV(P); and ii) Considering STV ‎at each ‎growth stage(T). Present study investigated the effect of abovementioned IMs (P, T) and ECis (i.e. 0.3, 10, 15, 20, 25dSm−1) on accumulation of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) ions in shoots (end of vegetation) and seeds (end of seed-filling) of quinoa. Results indicated that an increase in ECi ‎from 0.3 to 25dSm−1, especially after STV, caused a 56.6% and 12.8% increase of N while a 44.3% and 27.8% decrease of P, respectively in shoot and seed of quinoa. K only showed 30.2% increase in shoot. The change of all three ions was sharper in shoot than seed due to halophytic properties of quinoa which reduces salinity influence on seed embryo. The seed of quinoa is the main source of N and protein while the shoot is rich in P and K. The T ‎method of irrigation was preferred for providing the plant chance to survive in more saline condition.

Antianemic activity of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) Collana Negra variety and kanihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) Ramis variety seed flour in anemic rats

The Andean grains from the Peruvian Altiplano, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) and kanihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) have high protein content and an optimal balance of essential amino acids and minerals such as iron (19.8 mg/100 g y 17.6 mg/100 g, respectively). The objective of this research was to evaluate the antianemic activity of extruded flour from quinoa seeds variety Negra Collana and kanihua variety Ramis in anemic Holtzman strain rats. The results of the proximal analysis showed high protein content in quinoa at 22% and kanihua at 16.2%, and the acute toxicity test showed harmlessness up to the dose of 15000 mg/Kg in both flours confirmed with the anatomopathological observation of organs such as liver, stomach, lung, kidneys, and brain. In the evaluation of the antianemic activity, a basal average of 29.3 ± 0.2% of hematocrit was observed in the group of anemic rats treated with quinoa flour, and in twelve weeks, it increased to 53.8 ± 0.3% of hematocrit (p ≤ 0.05). A group of anemic rats treated with kanihua flour had a basal average of 29.5 ± 0.3%, and in twelve weeks, it increased to 51.7 ± 0.3% (p ≤ 0.05). A group of rats without anemia treated with quinoa and kanihua flour showed a basal average of 50.2 ± 0.2% and 49.3 ± 0.3%; in twelve weeks, it increased to 55.2 ± 0.2% and 54.8 ± 0.1%, respectively. It was concluded that oral administration of 360 mg/Kg every 24 h of quinoa flour and kanihua flour increased hematocrit levels by 24.5 ± 0.5% and 22.2 ± 0.3%; weight 65.8 ± 0.3 g and 59.2 ± 0.1 g; height 6.8 ± 0.1 cm and 5.7 ± 0.5 cm, respectively (p ≤ 0.05). In rats without anemia increased hematocrit levels by 5.3 ± 0.0% and 5.5 ± 0.0%; weight 37.7 ± 0.1 g and 21.7 ± 0.05 g; height 4 ± 0.0 cm and 3.9 ± 0.0 cm, respectively (p ≤ 0.05).

Shrimp-Waste-Derived Biochar Induces Metal Toxicity Tolerance of Wastewater-Irrigated Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

The scarcity of high-quality water resources may lead to the use of lower quality water for plant production. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) plants have great potential for human nutrition, but poor water quality, such as metal contamination in wastewater, affects the seed quality. This study aims to investigate the effects of shrimp-waste-derived biochar (SWB) on the uptake of toxic metals from wastewater by quinoa plants. Additionally, the study investigates how quinoa plants’ antioxidant defenses respond to wastewater and SWB treatments. Shrimp-waste-derived biochar (SWB) was prepared by pyrolysis at 350 °C for 3 h and added to the soil at the levels of 0, 1, and 2% (based on soil weight), which are namely C, SWB1, and SWB2, respectively. SWB was applied to quinoa plants cultivated in pots filled with sandy soil and irrigated with fresh or wastewater for a continuous 90 days. The wastewater was contaminated with manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Quinoa seeds that were irrigated with wastewater had Cd and Pb concentrations that were above the allowable levels (for human consumption) in the absence of biochar (C) or addition of SWB1. Wastewater significantly reduced quinoa growth and photosynthetic pigments, while SWB significantly mitigated the metal toxicity and improved growth. SWB2 significantly reduced the Pb and Cd concentrations in quinoa leaves by 29 and 30% compared with C. The Cd and Pb concentrations in quinoa seeds were safe for human consumption and below the maximum allowable limits when the soil was amended with SWB2. SWB improved the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments and increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase and ascorbate peroxidase. SWB reduced the toxic metal availability and uptake, mitigated the oxidative stress, and minimized the levels of malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide. The SWB addition stimulated quinoa’s antioxidant defense and protected plant cells by eliminating reactive oxygen species. The addition of 2% (w/w) shrimp waste biochar improved the quality of quinoa seeds irrigated with wastewater and decreased their toxic metal content. The obtained results contribute to sustainable development and the exploitation of wastewater to irrigate quinoa plants in arid degraded soil; additionally, it also helps in the recycling of shrimp waste.

Germination of White and Red Quinoa Seeds: Improvement of Nutritional and Functional Quality of Flours.

Quinoa is an Andean grain, classified as pseudocereal and the exploitation of its nutritional profile is of great interest for the cereal-based industry. The germination of quinoa seeds (white and red royal) was tested at 20 °C for different times (0, 18, 24 and 48 h) to select the best conditions for improving the nutritional quality of their flours. Changes in proximal composition, total phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, mineral content, unsaturated fatty acids and essential amino acids profiles of germinated quinoa seeds were determined. In addition, changes in structure and thermal properties of the starch and proteins as consequence of germination process were analyzed. In white quinoa, germination produced an increase in the content of lipids and total dietary fiber, at 48 h, the levels of linoleic and α-linolenic acids and antioxidant activity increase, while in red quinoa, the component that was mostly increased was total dietary fiber and, at 24 h, increased the levels of oleic and α-linolenic acids, essential amino acids (Lys, His and Met) and phenolic compounds; in addition, a decrease in the amount of sodium was detected. On the basis of the best nutritional composition, 48 h and 24 h of germination were selected for white and red quinoa seeds, respectively. Two protein bands were mostly observed at 66 kDa and 58 kDa, being in higher proportion in the sprouts. Changes in macrocomponents conformation and thermal properties were observed after germination. Germination was more positive in nutritional improvement of white quinoa, while the macromolecules (proteins and starch) of red quinoa presented greater structural changes. Therefore, germination of both quinoa seeds (48 h-white quinoa and 24 h-red quinoa) improves the nutritional value of flours producing the structural changes of proteins and starch necessary for obtaining high quality breads.

Impact of dietary inclusion of Chenopodium quinoa on growth performance and survival of Hubbard chicken.

The poultry sector is the most vibrant segment of the agriculture system plays a vital role in the supply of healthy meat products. Broiler production effectiveness is greatly associated with feed formulation. Although, broiler exhibits a relatively fast growth rate, the nutritional profile of its meat has been criticized under conventional human dietary regimes. In the current study, the dietary inclusion of quinoa was assessed to improve broiler growth performance, carcass quality, and health by analyzing different growth, hematological and biochemical, immunological parameters. In the present study, the chicken was fed with 50 g/kg, 100 g/kg, and 200 g/kg quinoa enriched diets in two different experimental groups during the growth phase or finisher phase while chicken fed with diet without quinoa were as control. The 50 g/kg quinoa supplemented chicken group revealed a substantial difference in growth performance in comparison with the control group. In addition, the examination of quinoa dietary supplementation on carcass quality exhibited variable behavior. Further, all the study groups fed with quinoa during the growth phase revealed no remarkable difference in the hematological profile in contrast to the control group except for the chicken group fed (50 g/Kg) during the finisher phase for hemoglobin levels. Likewise, all the quinoa enriched diet given chicken groups showed no significant difference in serum biochemical profile in contrast to the control group except for the 50 g/Kg quinoa fed chicken group during the finisher phase for total globulin levels. In addition, the examination of quinoa dietary supplementation on the broiler serum lipid profile was also assessed and birds exhibited variable behavior as the result of quinoa dietary supplementation. Evaluation of short-term immune response after quinoa supplementation assessed and birds exhibited no marked significance on expression outcomes of interleukin/cytokines (IL 1 beta, IL-6, IL-10) assessed by qRT-PCR analysis. In conclusion, the dietary supplementation of broiler fed with quinoa seeds can enhance the growth performance and the carcass quality of broiler.

Transcriptomics-metabolomics joint analysis: New highlight into the triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) contains various physiologically active substances, including vitamins, polyphenols, flavonoids, phytosterols, and saponins. Research showed that saponins were the protective substances in the outer layer of quinoa seeds to defend against microbes, herbivores, and insects. Because the aglycones of quinoa saponins are triterpenoids, they are called triterpenoid saponins (TSs). In addition, the presence of TS imparted bitterness in quinoa and resulted in anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, the seeds of low-saponin quinoa, NT376-2 (N), and high-saponin quinoa, B-12071(B), at 30 and 60 days after flowering (DAF) were used to measure the TS content and evaluated for their transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles. The amounts of TS were found to significantly differ between all possible comparisons: N and B at 30 DAF (N1_vs_B1), N and B at 60 DAF (N2_vs_B2), N at 30 DAF and 60 DAF (N1_vs_N2), and B at 30 DAF and 60 DAF (B1_vs_B2). RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to screen differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and revealed 14,703 upregulated DEGs and 26,267 downregulated DEGs in the four comparison groups. The 311 overlapping DEGs found in the four comparisons were used for Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses to screen for DEGs related to TS biosynthesis in quinoa. Metabolomics analysis identified acetyl-CoA, 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-butenyl-4-diphosphate, farnesal, and (S)-2,3-epoxysqualene as the key differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs). Transcriptomics-metabolomics joint analysis showed that triterpenoid biosynthesis and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis were the enriched pathways of TS biosynthesis; farnesal were the key DAMs shared in the four comparison groups and associated with 10 key candidate DEGs related to TS biosynthesis in quinoa. These results provided important references for in-depth research on the metabolic mechanism of TS in quinoa.

Changes in nutritional quality-related traits of quinoa seeds under different storage conditions.

Within the context of climate change and its impact on global food security, seed storage has become key, as it ensures long-term food and next-season seed preservation. Aiming at evaluating quality-related changes in quinoa seeds over storage time, different storage temperatures (-20, 4, 12, 25, and 37°C) and humidity conditions (use of silica gel or not) were studied and different seed nutritional parameters were evaluated at different points during a year of storage. Also, to determine if these variations could be conditioned by the genotype used, two quinoa cultivars were compared. The results proved that quinoa seed quality is highly dependent on the storage temperature but is not consistently affected by the use of silica gel if the seed moisture content (SMC) is kept between 5 and 12%. Furthermore, quality can be maintained and even improved by keeping SMC lower than 12% and storage temperatures low (4°C). Under these conditions (at 4°C in hermetic packaging with or without silica gel), and after 12 months of storage, there was an increase in amino acids like isoleucine, serine, arginine, glycine, and glutamic acid and in seed viability and germination. On the contrary, quinoa seeds stored at 37°C showed an accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which was related to a lower antioxidant capacity and a reduction in the contents of essential amino acids like isoleucine, lysine, histidine, and threonine, resulting in a delayed and reduced germination capacity, and, therefore, lower seed quality. Besides, quality-related differences appeared between cultivars highlighting differences linked to the genotype. Overall, this work demonstrates that optimal storage temperatures and SMC can preserve or even improve quinoa seed nutritional quality, which in turn can impact food safety and agriculture.

Integrative Analysis of the Metabolome and Transcriptome Provides Insights into the Mechanisms of Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Quinoa Seeds at Different Developmental Stages.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a crop with high nutritional and health benefits. Quinoa seeds are rich in flavonoid compounds; however, the mechanisms behind quinoa flavonoid biosynthesis remain unclear. We independently selected the high-generation quinoa strain ‘Dianli-3260′, and used its seeds at the filling, milk ripening, wax ripening, and mature stages for extensive targeted metabolome analysis combined with joint transcriptome analysis. The results showed that the molecular mechanism of flavonoid biosynthesis in quinoa seeds was mainly concentrated in two pathways: “flavonoid biosynthesis pathway” and “flavone and flavonol biosynthesis pathway”. Totally, 154 flavonoid-related metabolites, mainly flavones and flavonols, were detected in the four development stages. Moreover, 39,738 genes were annotated with KEGG functions, and most structural genes of flavonoid biosynthesis were differentially expressed during grain development. We analyzed the differential flavonoid metabolites and transcriptome changes between the four development stages of quinoa seeds and found that 11 differential flavonoid metabolites and 22 differential genes were the key factors for the difference in flavonoid biosynthesis. This study provides important information on the mechanisms underlying quinoa flavonoid biosynthesis, the screening of potential quinoa flavonoid biosynthesis regulation target genes, and the development of quinoa products.

Heat treatment of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) albumin: Effect on structural, functional, and in vitro digestion properties.

Quinoa seeds are rich in protein, polyphenols, phytosterols, and flavonoid substances, and excellent amino acid balance that has been revisited recently as a new food material showing potential applied in fitness and disease prevention. Heat treatment is one of the most effective strategies for improving the physiochemical characteristics of a protein. However, research examining the effects of temperature on quinoa albumin (QA) properties is limited. In this study, QA was subjected to thermal treatment (50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, and 121°C). SDS−PAGE revealed that QA is composed of several polypeptides in the 10−40 kDa range. Amino acid (AA) analysis showed that the branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), negatively charged amino acid residues (NCAAs), and positively charged amino acids (PCAAs) contents of QA were more than double that of the FAO/WHO reference standard. Additionally, heating induced structural changes, including sulfhydryl-disulfide interchange and the exposure of hydrophobic groups. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that the albumin underwent denaturation, dissociation, and aggregation during heating. Moreover, moderate heat treatment (60, 70, and 80°C) remarkably improved the functional properties of QA, enhancing its solubility, water (oil) holding capacity, and emulsification and foaming characteristics. However, heating also reduced the in vitro digestibility of QA. Together, these results indicate that heat treatment can improve the structural and functional properties of QA. This information has important implications for optimizing quinoa protein production, and various products related to quinoa protein could be developed. which provides the gist of commercial applications of quinoa seeds for spreading out in the marketplace.

Identification of Oxindoleacetic Acid Conjugates in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds by High-Resolution UHPLC-MS/MS.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has a high nutritional value and it contains a high number and high amounts of specialized metabolites. These metabolites include, for example, phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids and steroids. In addition, it is known to contain N-containing metabolites, such as betalains. Here, we report the presence and identification of 14 new oxindoleacetate conjugates in quinoa by high-resolution ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) and ultrahigh-resolution UHPLC-QOrbitrap-MS/MS. The oxindoleacetate conjugates were extracted from dried and ground quinoa seeds using either methanol/water or acetone/water (4:1, v/v) and were further concentrated into aqueous phase and analyzed by UHPLC with reverse-phase chromatography using acetonitrile and 0.1% aqueous formic acid as eluents. High-resolution hybrid LC-MS/MS techniques, including full scan MS with in-source collision, induced dissociation, and data dependent-MS2(TopN) with stepped normalized collision energies using N2 as collision gas and data-independent acquisition (MSE) using ramped collision energies and argon as collision gas enabled their analysis directly from the crude quinoa seed extract. The oxindoleacetate conjugates were found to be present in both conventional and organic farmed seeds. According to our best knowledge, this is the first time hydroxy-oxindoles have been reported in quinoa.