Conservation Questions Research Articles

Rapid extraction of ecologically meaningful information from large-scale acoustic recordings

Acoustic recordings have the potential to address a suite of important conservation questions, from assessing phenology shifts due to climate change, to examining the impact of anthropogenic noise on wildlife, to monitoring biodiversity at enormous spatio-temporal scales. However, consistent methods are required to extract meaningful information from these large datasets. Here we apply a method of calibrating recordings to standardize acoustic data collected at over 50 unique sites in a diversity of habitats across the continental U.S. using a variety of recording units and parameters. The calibration method results in a coarser data resolution, decreasing storage space and computation time of further analysis. We then apply recently developed acoustic indices to evaluate biodiversity in our recordings. A review of existing acoustic indices and degree of correlation with bioacoustic activity, species richness, functional diversity, landscape attributes, and anthropogenic influence guided our decisions about what indices to implement. Resulting indices were compared with the diversity of birds from observer point counts and from animal vocalizations observed in the recording spectrograms and to anthropogenic sounds observed in the recordings. The results provide important insight on the utility of each index, or group of indices, to investigate dynamics of ecological communities across large scales.

Scrubbing Up: Multi-Scale Investigation of Woody Encroachment in a Southern African Savannah

Changes in the extent of woody vegetation represent a major conservation question in many savannah systems around the globe. To address the problem of the current lack of broad-scale cost-effective tools for land cover monitoring in complex savannah environments, we use a multi-scale approach to quantifying vegetation change in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. We test whether medium spatial resolution satellite data (Landsat, existing back to the 1970s), which have pixel sizes larger than typical vegetation patches, can nevertheless capture the thematic detail required to detect woody encroachment in savannahs. We quantify vegetation change over a 13-year period in KNP, examine the changes that have occurred, assess the drivers of these changes, and compare appropriate remote sensing data sources for monitoring change. We generate land cover maps for three areas of southern KNP using very high resolution (VHR) and medium resolution satellite sensor imagery from February 2001 to 2014. Considerable land cover change has occurred, with large increases in shrubs replacing both trees and grassland. Examination of exclosure areas and potential environmental driver data suggests two mechanisms: elephant herbivory removing trees and at least one separate mechanism responsible for conversion of grassland to shrubs, theorised to be increasing atmospheric CO2. Thus, the combination of these mechanisms causes the novel two-directional shrub encroachment that we observe (tree loss and grassland conversion). Multi-scale comparison of classifications indicates that although spatial detail is lost when using medium resolution rather than VHR imagery for land cover classification (e.g., Landsat imagery cannot readily distinguish between tree and shrub classes, while VHR imagery can), the thematic detail contained within both VHR and medium resolution classifications is remarkably congruent. This suggests that medium resolution imagery contains sufficient thematic information for most broad-scale land cover monitoring requirements in heterogeneous savannahs, while having the benefits of being cost-free and providing a longer historical archive of data than VHR sources. We conclude that monitoring of broad-scale land cover change using remote sensing has considerable potential as a cost-effective tool for both better informing land management practitioners, and for monitoring the future landscape-scale impacts of management policies in savannahs.

Environmental DNA in subterranean biology: range extension and taxonomic implications for Proteus

Europe’s obligate cave-dwelling amphibian Proteus anguinus inhabits subterranean waters of the north-western Balkan Peninsula. Because only fragments of its habitat are accessible to humans, this endangered salamander’s exact distribution has been difficult to establish. Here we introduce a quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction-based environmental DNA (eDNA) approach to detect the presence of Proteus using water samples collected from karst springs, wells or caves. In a survey conducted along the southern limit of its known range, we established a likely presence of Proteus at seven new sites, extending its range to Montenegro. Next, using specific molecular probes to discriminate the rare black morph of Proteus from the closely related white morph, we detected its eDNA at five new sites, thus more than doubling the known number of sites. In one of these we found both black and white Proteus eDNA together. This finding suggests that the two morphs may live in contact with each other in the same body of groundwater and that they may be reproductively isolated species. Our results show that the eDNA approach is suitable and efficient in addressing questions in biogeography, evolution, taxonomy and conservation of the cryptic subterranean fauna.

Genetic rescue, the greater prairie chicken and the problem of conservation reliance in the Anthropocene.

A central question in conservation is how best to manage biodiversity, despite human domination of global processes (= Anthropocene). Common responses (i.e. translocations, genetic rescue) forestall potential extirpations, yet have an uncertain duration. A textbook example is the greater prairie chicken (GRPC: Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus), where translocations (1992–1998) seemingly rescued genetically depauperate Illinois populations. We re-evaluated this situation after two decades by genotyping 21 microsatellite loci from 1831 shed feathers across six leks in two counties over 4 years (2010–2013). Low migration rates (less than 1%) established each county as demographically independent, but with declining-population estimates (4 year average N = 79). Leks were genetically similar and significantly bottlenecked, with low effective population sizes (average Ne = 13.1; 4 year Ne/N = 0.166). Genetic structure was defined by 12 significantly different family groups, with relatedness r = 0.31 > half-sib r = 0.25. Average heterozygosity, indicating short-term survival, did not differ among contemporary, pre- and post-translocated populations, whereas allelic diversity did. Our results, the natural history of GRPC (i.e. few leks, male dominance hierarchies) and its controlled immigration suggest demographic expansion rather than genetic rescue. Legal protection under the endangered species act (ESA) may enhance recovery, but could exacerbate political–economic concerns on how best to manage ‘conservation-reliant’ species, for which GRPC is now an exemplar.

Remote sensing training in African conservation

AbstractThe potential of remote sensing (RS) to assist with conservation planning, implementation and monitoring is well described, and particularly relevant in African areas that are inaccessible due to terrain, finances or politics. We provide an African perspective on remote sensing (RS) training for conservation and ecology over the last decade through investigating (1) recent use of RS in African conservation literature, (2) use of RS in African conservation agencies, (3) RS training by African institutions and (4) RS capacity development by ad hoc events. Africa does not produce most of the research using RS in conservation and ecological studies conducted on Africa, with authors with correspondence addresses in the USA predominating (33% of a bibliometric analysis), although South Africa‐based authors constituted 20% (with an increase between 2000 and 2015), Kenya 6% and Tanzania and Ethiopia 4% each. Ideally research should be conducted close to the point of use to ensure relevance and data residence in the country concerned. This is a point for attention, possibly through international funding to increase the capacity of African academic institutions to conduct research using RS to answer conservation questions. Part of this will need to include attention on data and software costs, internet speeds and human capacity. Data costs have been alleviated by free Landsat and MODIS data, and the Copernicus programs, but there is need for higher resolution imagery to be freely available for certain conservation projects. Open Source software may well offer a long‐term solution to software costs. This would require that teaching is realigned to employer requirements, which are shifting in many countries and agencies from proprietary software to Open Source due to licensing costs. Low internet connectivity in many areas of Africa might limit the uptake of new data processing options that require connectivity, although over time these tools may become available to more users. However, human capacity is developing. Of the 72 academic institutions surveyed, a number of conservation programs supplied either tailored RS teaching or used ‘service modules’ to provide RS skills to young graduating conservation professionals, showing a recognition of the importance of RS in conservation in Africa. This study highlights the success of capacity development in Africa, and the increasing use of remote sensing for conservation in Africa.

Small Marine Protected Areas in Fiji Provide Refuge for Reef Fish Assemblages, Feeding Groups, and Corals.

The establishment of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) on coral reefs is a common management strategy for conserving the diversity, abundance, and biomass of reef organisms. Generally, well-managed and enforced MPAs can increase or maintain the diversity and function of the enclosed coral reef, with some of the benefits extending to adjacent non-protected reefs. A fundamental question in coral reef conservation is whether these benefits arise within small MPAs (<1 km2), because larval input of reef organisms is largely decoupled from local adult reproduction. We examined the structure of fish assemblages, composition of fish feeding groups, benthic cover, and key ecosystem processes (grazing, macroalgal browsing, and coral replenishment) in three small (0.5–0.8 km2) no-take MPAs and adjacent areas where fisheries are allowed (non-MPAs) on coral reefs in Fiji. The MPAs exhibited greater species richness, density, and biomass of fishes than non-MPAs. Furthermore, MPAs contained a greater abundance and biomass of grazing herbivores and piscivores as well as a greater abundance of cleaners than fished areas. We also found differences in fish associations when foraging, with feeding groups being generally more diverse and having greater biomass within MPAs than adjacent non-MPAs. Grazing by parrotfishes was 3–6 times greater, and macroalgal browsing was 3–5 times greater in MPAs than in non-MPAs. On average, MPAs had 260–280% as much coral cover and only 5–25% as much macroalgal cover as their paired non-MPA sites. Finally, two of the three MPAs had three-fold more coral recruits than adjacent non-MPAs. The results of this study indicate that small MPAs benefit not only populations of reef fishes, but also enhance ecosystem processes that are critical to reef resilience within the MPAs.

Bird Take—Death Trade

The Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) protects 1,027 bird species—the vast majority of native birds in the United States and its territories—by criminalizing the taking, killing, or selling of any migratory bird or bird part.3 Beginning in the 1960s, the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) began prosecuting industrial firms for “incidental take,” the unintentional taking or killing of migratory birds. Incidental take is a negative externality of industry: firms kill birds—a natural resource shared by all—and do not compensate for their loss. A split in authority consequently arose on whether the strict liability misdemeanor of the MBTA criminalizes such unintentional killings. In response to concerns of incidental take, the FWS is now in a rulemaking process, by which it hopes to establish an incidental-take permit program, allowing firms to purchase take permits, compensate the FWS for estimated bird take, and evade or at least minimize the risk of prosecution.While the incidental-take circuit split has already received scholarly attention elsewhere, this Article tackles a larger conservation question, drawing on scholarship in the fields of emissions trading and conservation banking. This Article proposes two alternative market-based solutions to the menace of incidental take. First, the Bird Tax: a Pigouvian tax that seeks to correct the inefficient market outcome that results in uncompensated industrial and nonindustrial incidental take. Second, the North American Bird Market: a trilateral initiative building upon decades of successful environmental cooperation between Canada, the United States, and Mexico. By incentivizing clean energy, requiring industry to internalize its bird take, and promoting habitat restoration, the Bird Market is an efficient and clean theoretical solution to the menace of incidental take and the looming threat to our continent’s shared birdscape.In contrast to a comprehensive, upstream Bird Tax that targets both industrial and nonindustrial incidental take, the Bird Market would entail potentially restrictive financial and logistical costs due to its limited focus on the regulation of industrial take. As such, it is possible that the Bird Market is a mere flight of fancy—a thought experiment whose doom radiates from its very core—and nothing more. Despite these challenges, this Article’s presentation of the Market serves three other purposes. First, the Market serves as a vehicle to expose the sobering truth that the MBTA and incidental-take prosecutions are an expressive, but ultimately fruitless conservation mechanism. Second, the Market is an investigation of how to quantify and trade death with the goal of conserving life. Finally, the exposition of the Market and the critique of the MBTA is an attempt to tightrope walk the seemingly unbridgeable legal-analytical rift between the ritualized law and economics of Ronald Coase,4 and the touchy-feelythrow-your-hands-up-in-the-air neorealism of Arthur Allan Leff. Ultimately, because incidental industrial take is only a minor anthropogenic stressor, the Market will fail to achieve meaningful conservation goals for the same reasons that incidental-take prosecutions under the MBTA fail to achieve these goals. August 2016 marked the centennial of the first migratory bird treaty with Canada. One hundred years have passed, and this Article calls upon Congress to abandon its ancient conservation precepts and supplement our treaties and the MBTA with a meaningful international habitat-restoration program.

Impacts of global change on species distributions: obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use

AbstractAim The impact of multiple stressors on biodiversity is one of the most pressing questions in ecology and biodiversity conservation. Here we critically assess how often and efficiently two main drivers of global change have been simultaneously integrated into research, with the aim of providing practical solutions for better integration in the future. We focus on the integration of climate change (CC) and land‐use change (LUC) when studying changes in species distributions.Location Global.Methods We analysed the peer‐reviewed literature on the effects of CC and LUC on observed changes in species distributions, i.e. including species range and abundance, between 2000 and 2014.Results Studies integrating CC and LUC remain extremely scarce, which hampers our ability to develop appropriate conservation strategies. The lack of CC–LUC integration is likely to be a result of insufficient recognition of the co‐occurrence of CC and LUC at all scales, covariation and interactions between CC and LUC, as well as correlations between species thermal and habitat requirements. Practical guidelines for the study of these interactive effects include considering multiple drivers and processes when designing studies, using available long‐term datasets on multiple drivers, revisiting single‐driver studies with additional drivers or conducting comparative studies and meta‐analyses. Combining various methodological approaches, including time lags and adaptation processes, represent further avenues to improve global change science.Main conclusions Despite repeated claims for a better integration of multiple drivers, the effects of CC and LUC on species distributions and abundances have been mostly studied in isolation, which calls for a shift of standards towards more integrative global change science. The guidelines proposed here will encourage study designs that account for multiple drivers and improve our understanding of synergies or antagonisms among drivers.

Deadwood-rich managed forests provide insights into the old-forest association of wood-inhabiting fungi

Abstract A major question in fungal conservation is why many species are confined to old forests, and how they could be supported by contemporary landscape matrix. Specifically, forestry that retains large biological legacies across landscape could reduce old-forest dependencies to species that require unusual substrate conditions. We sampled polypores in 112 2 ha plots (both old and harvested stands) in a semi-natural forestry context in Estonia and modelled the habitat factors of species confined to old growth. The results confirmed that old-growth assemblages emerged mostly due to diverse and abundant substrate supply (notably downed CWD). Only 10 species (five spruce-dwellers) were confined to old growth; of these, only Fomitopsis rosea and Oxyporus corticola were additionally affected by forest connectivity. The forestry system studied appeared particularly favourable for the species inhabiting deciduous wood. To better address habitat degradation in conservation, expert lists of ‘old-forest (indicator) fungi’ should be replaced with evidence-based focal taxa.

Ultra-low activities of a common radioisotope for permission-free tracking of a drosophilid fly in its natural habitat.

Knowledge of a species’ ecology, including its movement in time and space, is key for many questions in biology and conservation. While numerous tools for tracking larger animals are available, millimetre-sized insects are averse to standard tracking and labelling procedures. Here, we evaluated the applicability of ultra-low, permission-exempt activities of the metastable isomer of the radionuclide Technetium-99 for labelling and field detection of the mountain fly Drosophila nigrosparsa. We demonstrate that an activity of less than 10 MBq is sufficient to label dozens of flies and detect single individuals using standard radiation protection monitors. The methodology presented here is applicable to many small-sized, low-mobility animals as well as independent from light and weather conditions and visual contact with the target organism.

Novel approach of signal normalization for depth profile of cultural heritage materials

The investigation of cultural heritage materials is always complex and specific because unique. Materials are most often heterogeneous and organized in several layers such as mural paintings or corrosion products. The characterization of a complete artwork's stratigraphy is actually one of the questions of science conservation. Indeed, the knowledge of these layers allows completing the history of the work of art and a better understanding of alteration processes in order to set up an appropriate conservation action. The LIBS technique has been employed to study the stratigraphy of an artwork thanks to the ablation laser.However, as we know, atomic information could be insufficient to characterize two materials composed by the same based elements. Therefore, an additional molecular analysis, like Raman spectroscopy; is sometimes necessary for a better identification of the material in particular for organic coatings in cultural heritage. We suggest in this study to use Standard Normal Variate (SNV) as a common normalization for different kinds of spectra (LIBS and Raman spectroscopy) combined with a 3D colour representation for stratigraphic identification of the different layers composing the complex material from artwork. So in this investigation, the SNV method will be applied on LIBS and Raman spectra but also on baseline Raman spectra often considering as nuisance. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the versatility of SNV applied on varied spectra like LIBS, Raman spectra as well as the luminescence background.This original work considers the SNV with a 3D colour representation as a probable new perspective for an easy recognition of a structure layered with a direct overview of the depth profile of the artwork.

More topics from the tropics: additional thoughts to Mammides et al.

Most studies on tropical conservation questions are conducted by researchers of developed countries from the north. This geographic disconnection was recently criticised by Mammides et al. Here, we reflect on their findings and add further views from scientist’s and journal editor’s perspectives. We argue that journals are, a priori, most strongly interested in research questions and approaches that will likely increase their scientific impact and prestige. This is rarely compatible with publishing articles on questions with restricted global impact or based on single taxa. We question whether small changes in the editorial policy of international conservation journals will considerably improve the geographic diversity in key conservation publications. Rather, thematic scopes of the leading conservation journals should be modified, preferably in close collaboration with leading conservationists from the south. We are convinced that long-term investments in the tropics will create a stronger local scientific community, thus bolstering academic morale, and finally may lead to an increase in the submission and acceptance rate of articles written from scientists from these regions.

Building capacity in remote sensing for conservation: present and future challenges

AbstractRemote sensing (RS) has made significant contributions to conservation and ecology; however, direct use of RS‐based information for conservation decision making is currently very limited. In this paper, we discuss the reasons and challenges associated with using RS technology by conservationists and suggest how training in RS for conservationists can be improved. We present the results from a survey organized by the Conservation Remote Sensing Network to understand the RS expertise and training needs of various categories of professionals involved in conservation research and implementation. The results of the survey highlight the main gaps and priorities in the current RS data and technology among conservation practitioners from academia, institutions, NGOs and industry. We suggest training to be focused around conservation questions that can be addressed using RS‐derived information rather than training pure RS methods which are beyond the interest of conservation practitioners. We highlight the importance of developing essential biodiversity variables (EBVs) and how this can be achieved by increasing the RS capacity of the conservation community. Moreover, we suggest that open‐source software is adopted more widely in the training modules to facilitate access to RS data and products in developing countries, and that online platforms providing mapping tools should also be more widely distributed. We believe that improved RS capacity among conservation scientists will be essential to improve conservation efforts on the ground and will make the conservation community a key player in the definition of future RS‐based products that serve conservation and ecological needs.

Genetic variation in the Red-Listed moss Ditrichum cornubicum Paton (Ditrichaceae) and implications for its conservation

Ditrichum cornubicum is a rare and threatened acrocarpous moss found on copper-rich mine waste, characteristic of the EU protected habitat ‘Calaminarian grassland of the Violetalia calaminariae’. The species was once thought to be a British endemic, being known from two former copper/tin mine sites in Cornwall, until the discovery of a population in 2006 at Allihies Mountain Mine, Co. Cork, Ireland, a former copper mine. In light of this discovery, two theories of possible introduction from Britain to Ireland were put forward: (1) an introduction from the 1800s and (2) a more recent introduction (2000s). Only male plants of the species are known, and reproduction and dispersal are therefore solely through asexual propagules and fragmentation. In order to address the conservation questions of the origin of the Irish population and to determine whether diversity exists within this rare species, genetic fingerprinting (amplified fragment length polymorphism) was carried out on the three known global populations. Percent polymorphism was found to be 7.29% and Nei's total gene diversity (HT) was 0.0356. AMOVA revealed that, of the small amount of variation found, the majority was among the three populations (98%). The presence of five private alleles in the Allihies population suggests a longer period of isolation than would fit either theory of introduction. Cluster analyses reveal that the Allihies population is more genetically distinct than the two British populations are to each other, thus heightening the conservation priority for this population.

Half the earth for people (or more)? Addressing ethical questions in conservation

Preserving global biodiversity depends upon designating many more large terrestrial and marine areas as strictly protected areas. Yet recent calls for addressing biodiversity loss by setting aside more protected areas have been met with hostility from some social scientists and even some conservation biologists. The main objections against the so-called 'nature needs half' movement include the following. First, setting aside protected areas implies that some vulnerable human communities will be displaced to make space for wildlife. Second, separating humans from their environment ignores the fact that humans have always been part of the environments around them, and creates a false dichotomy between nature and culture. Third, conservationists are said to put the blame for biodiversity loss on all humanity, rather than on those who are doing most of the damage. Fourth, many social justice proponents argue that human population growth is not related to biodiversity loss or other sustainability challenges. This article critically addresses these four objections, exposing their robust anthropocentric bias. Protected area critics reliably demand fairness for human beings at the expense of nonhuman beings, who they treat as morally inconsequential. But justice is not only about just us. Conservation properly understood implies a fair division of Earth's resources between human and nonhuman beings. Justice demands setting aside at least half Earth's lands and seas for nature, free from intensive economic activities.

Bridging disciplines with training in remote sensing for animal movement: an attendee perspective

AbstractRemote sensing and animal movement datasets are increasingly used to answer key questions in ecology and conservation. Collecting and accessing this data is becoming ever cheaper and easier, but limited analytical expertise limits its wider use. Working at the interface between these two disciplines is challenging as there are no standard techniques for handling the complex spatial data, so specific and in‐depth training is required. Higher education programs rarely cover remote sensing for animal movement, so external courses play a major role in training newcomers and creating a more unified global community. We conducted an online survey to investigate the views of previous attendees of four training courses that involve remote sensing and animal location data. These courses provided subject‐specific knowledge, practical and coding skills, networking, collaboration opportunities, insightful discussions and transferable research skills. Our survey highlighted the importance of real‐world examples, practical sessions, time for participants to work with their own data, preparatory material and open source software. Despite the value of interdisciplinary training in remote sensing and animal movement, it reaches few ecology and conservation practitioners outside of academia. We advocate more funding for underrepresented participants to attend existing course and the development of new courses.

Long-term effects of tree harvesting on ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in boreal Scots pine forests

Management of boreal forests with clear-cutting has a marked effect on forest biodiversity. One directly and severely affected group of species is ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF), because of their dependence on living host trees. Key questions in nature conservation and potentially for fungal ecosystem services are whether EMF communities as regenerated stands age will develop into a similar composition as in natural stands, and whether forest regeneration method matters. We addressed these questions by analyzing EMF communities in (1) 157–174year-old natural and about 50-year-old Scots pine forest stands regenerated by (2) clear-cutting and planting, or (3) shelterwood regeneration with naturally established seedlings. We identified 98 EMF species hypotheses (SHs) using IonTorrent sequencing of soil cores from nine forest stands. We compared these results with a sporocarp survey and an RFLP-analysis of ectomycorrhizal roots performed 18years earlier.When testing individual SHs (in the sequencing data 2013) 13 of the 20 most frequent EMF SHs in natural forest stands were present in similar frequencies in 50-year-old managed stands whereas 7 SHs were observed at different frequencies. The overall EMF community composition differed between natural and 50-year-old managed stands both when assessing sporocarp data from 1995 to 1998 and sequencing data from 2013. One individually tested SH was found to differ between 50-year-old shelterwood and clear-cut stands and no difference in EMF overall community composition was found between the two regeneration methods. Species richness was similar in all stands. The RFLP-analysis largely identified the same common species as the current study.Our result suggests that timber harvest has a minor effect on frequent EMF in a 30–50year perspective. However, both the current study of soil mycelia and the sporocarp survey imply the overall composition of EMF communities to be affected. A contributing factor is the higher presence of Norway spruce in the natural stands. Moreover, the majority of species were not sufficiently frequent to be statistically tested. The importance of surviving mycelia, spore bank and new spore deposition is discussed.

Enhancing capacity for freshwater conservation at the genetic level: a demonstration using three stream macroinvertebrates

Abstract Species diversity is declining more rapidly in freshwater ecosystems than in any other, but the consequences for genetic diversity, and hence evolutionary potential, are poorly understood. In part this reflects limited use and development of modern molecular tools and genetic approaches to address conservation questions in rivers, lakes and wetlands. As widespread, diverse and functionally important organisms, freshwater macroinvertebrates are ideal candidates for genetic approaches to reveal, for example, the conservation consequences of demographic histories and past disturbances. However, the availability of microsatellite markers for this group is very limited. Using next generation sequencing, microsatellite markers were developed for Isoperla grammatica (Poda, 1761), Amphinemura sulcicollis (Stephens, 1836) and Baetis rhodani (Pictet, 1843) to enable conservation genetic investigations of these widespread invertebrate species. Fifty‐two robust microsatellite loci were developed (18, 21 and 13 per species), all with high levels of allelic diversity (7–27, 3–16, 5–13 alleles per loci, respectively). These tools will allow assessment of genetic structure, dispersal and demographic resilience in these model species as a function of environmental change and variation, thereby aiding freshwater monitoring and conservation. The authors urge further capacity building to support genetic applications to the conservation biology of other aquatic organisms. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

The emergence of the Middle Palaeolithic in north-western Europe and its southern fringes

The nature of the Lower–Middle Palaeolithic transition has been one of the most debated questions in early Prehistory since the mid-20th century. The root of these debates lies primarily in how early prehistorians constructed chronological models, relying heavily upon index fossils. Such models have “artificial boundaries designed to provide structure to a complex record and, rather than being conceived of as permanent or real, should be frequently examined and revised (Corbey and Roebroeks, 2001)” (Monnier, 2006). In this paper, we will not focus our efforts on issues relating to nomenclature and systems of classification. Instead, we will focus on a time frame within which rapid behavioural and technological changes have been documented: the period between MIS 9 to 6.Working on a large scale, and taking account of all of north-western Europe and its southern fringes, a group of researchers working on the main sites from this period propose an assessment of current research on the emergence of the “Middle Palaeolithic”. Using a rich corpus of archaeological sites, we discuss how humans occupied north-western Europe and its southern margins between MIS 9 to 6, focusing particularly on questions of taphonomy, conservation, chronology and environment, as well as reviewing the pattern of technological change within lithic assemblages. This overview of current research into the emergence of the Middle Palaeolithic will help to define future research paths and advance our understanding of this key period of human evolution.

Limitations in global information on species occurrences

Detailed information on species distributions is crucial for answering central questions in biogeography, ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation. Millions of species occurrence records have been mobilized via international data-sharing networks, but inherent biases, gaps and uncertainties hamper broader application. In my PhD thesis, I presented the first comprehensive analyses of global patterns and drivers of these limitations across different taxonomic groups and spatial scales. Integrating 300 million occurrence records for terrestrial vertebrates and plants with comprehensive taxonomic databases, expert range maps and regional checklists, I demonstrated extensive taxonomic, geographical and temporal biases, gaps and uncertainties. I identified key socio-economic drivers of data bias across different taxonomic groups and spatial scales. The results of my dissertation provide an empirical baseline for effectively accounting for data limitations in distribution models, as well as for prioritizing and monitoring efforts to collate additional occurrence information.