Quartz Overgrowths Research Articles

Direct observation and measurement of Au and Ag in epithermal mineralizing fluids

Colloidal gold particles have been observed in c. 300 °C low salinity fluids from the Arapucandere intermediate sulphidation epithermal base-metal-Au deposit in NW Turkey. This is the first time colloidal gold has been recorded in an ancient mineralizing fluid. Growth, in veins, of large euhedral quartz crystals, after the deposition of sulphides, occurred in a number of stages from the introduction of fresh pulses of fluid. The quartz overgrowths have a fibrous texture which facilitated trapping of large elongate fluid inclusions between the quartz fibres which grew perpendicular to the crystal faces of the pre-existing quartz. Episodic periods of intense trapping of fluid inclusions occurred throughout the growth of quartz. Trapped within primary fluid inclusions are numerous particles of gold, the largest observed is c. 1 μm but most are smaller. BSE element mapping shows these to contain Au, Ag, Cu ± Hg. LA-ICP-MS profiles of the fluid inclusions confirm Au and Ag is not present in solution, being present as numerous particles. We have quantified the concentration of gold in fluid inclusions which are orders of magnitude greater than has been previously measured or thought likely in crustal fluids. The average Ag concentration is c. 32 ppm and Au is c. 41 ppm but the maximum concentrations of both may reach several 100’s to 1000 ppm. Calcite forms a coating on the inner surface of the inclusions and barite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite and unidentified minerals are also present with the Au-Ag particles. It is clear that the Au-Ag particles could not have precipitated in the fluid inclusions, therefore they must have precipitated elsewhere and been carried with the hydrothermal fluid. The high concentrations and their colloidal nature have implications for the enrichment of gold in mineral deposits.

Trace Element Geochemistry in Quartz in the Jinqingding Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, China: Implications for the Gold Precipitation Mechanism

Lots of studies on gold precipitation mechanisms have focused on fluid inclusions within quartz. However, the trace elements in quartz reflect the properties of the ore fluid, and a comparison of the trace element content in different types of quartz can reveal the precipitation mechanism. The Jinqingding gold deposit is the largest gold deposit in the Muping–Rushan gold belt and contains the largest single sulfide–quartz vein type orebody in the gold belt. This study distinguished four types of quartz in this orebody through field work and investigations of the mineralogy and cathodoluminescence (CL) of the quartz and crosscutting relationships as seen under a microscope. In situ studies via electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA) and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) were used to determine the trace element content of the different quartz types. Type Qa displayed a comb structure in the field and zoning under the microscope and in CL. Milky white and smoke grey Qb was the most common quartz type and hosted the most sulfide and gold. Qc was Qa and Qb quartz that recrystallized around pyrite or overgrew and appeared different from Qa and Qb in CL images. Qd occurred within fractures in pyrite. Qa formed prior to the mineralization of gold, and Qd formed post-mineralization. Qb and Qc provided information regarding the ore fluid during mineralization. Sericites occurred with pyrite in fractures in the quartz, and some, along with free gold, filled in fractures in pyrite. Free gold occurred within Qa, Qb, Qc, and in brittle fractures in pyrite. Qc had the lowest Al content of all of the quartz types. As Al content is related to the acidity of the ore fluid in previous study, this indicated an acidity decrease during mineralization, which could be attributed to the sericitization. Sericitization could indicate a potential gold occurrence. The Ti content decreased from Qb to Qc, indicating a decrease in temperature during quartz overgrowth formation. Change in acidity and cooling can therefore be identified as possible causes of gold precipitation in the sulfide–quartz vein type in the Jinqingding gold deposit.

Influence of sedimentation and detrital clay grain coats on chloritized sandstone reservoir qualities: Insights from comparisons between ancient tidal heterolithic sandstones and a modern estuarine system

Authigenic clay coats (mostly Fe-rich chlorite coats) affect sandstone reservoir qualities by inhibiting quartz overgrowth during burial diagenesis, preserving both porosity and permeability. It is still unclear what initial mineralogical assemblages and initial sedimentation conditions produce chloritized sandstone reservoirs, which is important for sandstone reservoir quality prediction. For this purpose, better link facies with chlorite coat occurences could be useful. To address these questions, sedimentological, petrographical and mineralogical analyses were carried out from sand and sandstones cores for both a deeply buried Permian estuarine sandstone reservoir (Australia) and the Gironde estuary (France). Comparisons reveal similar sedimentary facies and vertical facies associations (from a muddy bottom to cross-stratified sandier packages and to a muddy top), indicative of tidal sand bars deposited in a mud-rich estuary. These criteria can be useful for recognizing tidal deposits when describing cores. X-ray diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis show that detrital clay minerals are composed of illite, smectite, kaolinite and chlorite while clay assemblage differs in the Permian reservoir with dickite or an illite-rich illite/smectite mixed layer (I/S). Coats are either composed of detrital clays minerals (Gironde) or Fe-rich chlorite crystals (Permian). Transformations of detrital clays into other clay minerals (such as berthierine, precursor to Fe-rich chlorite) during eogenesis can initiate well-crystallized Fe-rich chlorite formation during burial diagenesis. Detrital minerals and detrital clay grain coats observed in the Gironde estuary could be the prerequisite initial conditions for generating authigenic Fe-rich chlorite coats in estuarine sandstones during burial. This is partly due to the initial clay fraction content of 15-20%, part of which forms detrital clay grain coats. Our main conclusion shows that facies from the middle to the upper tidal sand bar at the top of the transgressive cycle were probably uncemented during burial, and might be good candidates during reservoir exploration.

Quartz types and origins in the paleozoic Wufeng-Longmaxi Formations, Eastern Sichuan Basin, China: Implications for porosity preservation in shale reservoirs

Abstract Quartz in shales has been demonstrated to exert a significant effect on shale gas production by influencing rock mechanical behavior and reservoir porosity; however, quartz types and origins in shales are complicated and challenging to study due to their fine-grained nature. In this study, we propose combining thin section images, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) maps, cathodoluminescence (CL) images and geochemical data to investigate quartz types and origins in shale formations. Shale samples from the Ordovician Wufeng-Silurian Longmaxi Formations, Eastern Sichuan Basin, China were used to study quartz types, origins and the effect of quartz cementation on porosity development. Samples from the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formations have TOC contents in the range of 0.5–4.7 wt%, averaging 2.7 wt%, and are currently in the thermally overmature stage. Five types of quartz, including silt-size detrital quartz, siliceous skeletal fragments, quartz overgrowth, clay matrix-dispersed microquartz, and aggregates of euhedral quartz, were identified. The ternary diagram of Fe–Al–Mn, the cross-plot of SiO2 versus Zr, and the cross-plot of Si versus Al suggest that the dissolution and reprecipitation of siliceous skeletons may provide the major source of silica for quartz cementation in the lower part of the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formations, and released silica as a result of smectite to illite transformation is also important for authigenic quartz formation in the upper part of the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formations. Our SEM images suggest that the rigid framework formed by quartz cementation not only prevents primary interparticle pores from compaction but also favors the generation of organic matter-associated pores.

Characteristics and controlling factors of the Lower–Middle Jurassic sandstone reservoirs in Amu Darya right bank area, Turkmenistan

Based on laboratory analysis and core description, characteristics and the controlling factors of the Lower–Middle Jurassic reservoirs in Amu Darya right bank area are examined in this article. The study reveals that fine-grained lithic sandstones, feldspar–lithic sandstones, and siltstones are the main types of reservoir rocks in the central area, while fine-grained lithic–quartzose sandstones are predominant in the eastern area. The major pore types are intergranular and intragranular dissolved pores; the predominant pore throats are lamellar throats. Fractures develop poorly in the study region, but relatively well in the eastern area. The reservoirs are pore-dominated sandstone reservoirs with limited fractures, characterized by very low porosity and permeability. Reservoir evolution is jointly controlled by sedimentation, diagenesis, and tectonic movements. Sedimentation laid the foundation to porosity evolution. Subaqueous distributary channels and mouth bars are the beneficial lithofacies for reservoir development. Poor compressive strength of sandstones, deep paleoburial depth, and destructive subsidence style of the strata led to strong compaction. Primary pores are almost entirely destroyed by compaction and eogenetic calcite cementation. Ferroan dolomite cements and quartz overgrowths occupied the remaining intergranular pores furtherly. However, dissolution played an effective role on the generation of secondary pores, and the influences of authigenic clay minerals are minor on reservoirs. The Neogene–Quaternary tectonic movements caused intensive lateral compressional stress thus made further damage to reservoir pore structure. Nevertheless, fractures generated by tectonic movements increased reservoir permeability and provided valid migration pathways for the late dissolution fluids, therefore improved reservoir physical properties obviously.

Characteristics, diagenetic evolution, and controlling factors of the Es1 deep burial high‐quality sandstone reservoirs in the PG2 oilfield, Nanpu Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, China

Significant achievements have been reported for deep oil and gas exploration in the Bohai Bay Basin. Among them, the Nanpu Sag has achieved good deep (greater than 3.5 km) hydrocarbon exploration results. However, the hydrocarbon formation mechanisms and the diagenetic evolution of these high‐quality sandstone reservoirs remain unclear. Mineralogical, petrographic, and fluid inclusion data were selected to investigate the deeply buried sandstone reservoir physical properties, pore systems, and diagenetic features and the main formation mechanisms of the deep high‐quality reservoirs of the Es1 (the top member of the Paleogene Shahejie Formation) sandstones in the Nanpu Sag, eastern China. The results show that the Es1 sandstone reservoirs are dominated by lithic arkoses and have low porosities (average porosity 13.4%) but medium to high permeability (average permeability 188 mD). The pore systems consist of primary intergranular pores, secondary dissolution pores, and microfractures. Loss of porosity is greater due to compaction (average 20.89%) than due to cementation (average 4.82%), and dissolution contributes an improvement in porosity of approximately 5.85%. Two peaks in the inclusion homogenization temperatures were observed: The first fluid inclusion homogenization temperature term ranges from 130°C to 145°C and exhibits yellow fluorescence; the other peak occurs from 155°C to 165°C, showing green fluorescence. Eodiagenesis is due to mechanical compaction, precipitation of early calcite cements and quartz overgrowths, and dissolution of feldspar and carbonate cements. Mesodiagenesis occurs due to mechanical compaction, framework grain (mainly feldspar) dissolution, and precipitation of quartz and late carbonate cements. The main factors controlling the formation of the deep high‐quality reservoirs are the presence of a high hydrodynamic depositional environment (subaqueous distributary channel), the type of provenance (Archean granites), and the creation of secondary porosity by feldspar dissolution.

Sedimentary and diagenetic controls on reservoir quality of low-porosity and low-permeability sandstone reservoirs in Chang101, upper triassic Yanchang Formation in the Shanbei area, Ordos Basin, China

There are many reservoirs with low porosity and low permeability in the world, and many large oilfields have been found in these reservoirs. Unlike conventional reservoirs, the genesis of low-porosity and low-permeability reservoirs and the controls of relatively high-porosity and high-permeability zones are still unclear. This study takes the Chang101 reservoir sandstones of the Shanbei area in the Ordos Basin, China, a typical low-porosity and low-permeability, as an example. Chang101 sandstones are fine-grained to medium-grained, moderately to well sorted arkose and lithic arkose deposited in a delta plain environment. It is a typical low porosity and low permeability reservoir with an average porosity of 10.21% and an average permeability of 2.88 mD. Pore types mainly include primary intergranular pores and secondary dissolved pores. The main controls on the reservoirs are the sedimentary environment and diagenesis. The sedimentary environment determines the initial properties of the reservoir sandstones, including the material composition and texture that determine the primary porosity and permeability. Diagenesis further transforms the reservoir quality to develop heterogeneity in the porosity and permeability. The reservoir sandstones have undergone complex diagenetic processes and are currently in stage A of mesodiagenesis. Compaction accounts for the major reduction of the primary porosity of the sandstones. Different types of cementation have both positive and negative influences on reservoir quality. Carbonate cementation, quartz overgrowths and some authigenic clay cementation(i.e., I/S and illite) are major pore-filling components, that reduce the reservoir quality. An appropriate amount of chlorite resists compaction and prevents quartz overgrowth, but excessive chlorite coatings fill the pores and block the pore throats. The laumontite cement is not only resistant to compaction but also easily dissolved to form a large number of effective secondary pores. The dissolution of feldspar and rock fragments plays a role in contributing to connecting the isolated intergranular pores and increasing the secondary pores. Relatively high porosity and high permeability zones are deposited in high-energy environment, mainly delta plain distributary channel sandstones with more detrital quartz, fewer rock fragments and coarser grains than other sandstones, were deposited in high-energy environment. There is weaker compaction and less or no carbonate cement, with the preservation of the primary pores by chlorite coatings and an increase in the pores by the dissolution of laumontite cement.

Sedimentological characteristics and reservoir quality prediction in the Upper Ordovician glaciogenic sandstone of the In-Adaoui-Ohanet gas field, Illizi basin, Algeria

The Upper Ordovician glaciogenic deposits are thought to have an important quantity of hydrocarbon across North Africa. Insight is provided about the IV-3 reservoir unit in the In-Adaoui-Ohanet field in the Illizi basin of south-east Algeria. The aim is to: 1) describe the lithofacies; 2) interpret the depositional environment; 3) describe the petrographic characteristics; 4) investigate the petrophysical properties; and 5) perform a biostratigraphic analysis of the unit IV-3 reservoir (Upper Ordovician) in the In-Adaoui-Ohanet field based on the core description and samples collected from the well IA-115.Lithofacies described in the study area are MT1, MT2, MT3, MT6, and MT9. Subglacial tillite is the depositional environment associated with lithofacies MT3, MT6, and MT9. These lithofacies are thought to be deposited medial to a distal fan, whereas lithofacies MT1 and MT2 are thought to be deposited in high-energy flows. Acritarch and Chitinozoan species are the most common biozones described in the study reservoir and they are thought to be affiliated with an Upper Ashgilian stage. Petrographic analysis shows that the study reservoir unit is formed by fine to coarse-grained sandstone. Quartz is considered to be the principal framework mineral (mean, 56.30%). Cementing minerals observed in this reservoir unit are quartz and carbonate. From a compositional point of view, the unit IV-3 reservoir in the In-Adaoui-Ohanet field is predominantly formed by quartz arenites, which are considered to be mature. Additionally, the tectonic setting of these arenites is most likely associated with a passive margin origin. The emphasis throughout this study is on the role of factors such as permeability, carbonate cement, and quartz overgrowth on the reservoir quality of unit IV-3 in the In-Adaoui-Ohanet field. The quality of this reservoir unit is highly influenced by the quartz overgrowth and pores that are plugged by carbonate cement, which dramatically reduces the pore network. An enhanced porosity was observed only in the MT3lithofacies (up to 22.3%). Additionally, from an economic point of view, the study reservoir unit is classified as a tight gas-bearing reservoir.

Provenance, shallow to deep diagenesis, and chemical mass balance in supermature arenites and pelites, Ordovician Simpson Group, Oklahoma and Kansas, U.S.A.

This study, considering original detrital compositions and diagenetic alterations, relates sandstone and shale mineral and chemical composition to provenance and mass balance between the sedimentary assemblage and its provenance. Mature quartz-rich sandstones and siltstones with clay-rich shales in cores at depths of 60 m–5.2 km and burial temperatures of <50 to >150 °C from over 50 wells were utilized in this work. These provide the material for analysis of compositions and alterations in coastal and shallow marine clastic sedimentary rocks of the Middle Ordovician Simpson Group in Oklahoma and Kansas, U.S.A. Mineral and geochemical data were obtained by optical petrography, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe, and whole rock X-ray fluorescence and ICP/MS analyses. Results of the study show significant progressive diagenetic changes with increased burial depth and temperature. Mineralogically and chemically, less altered rocks are comparable to modern quartz-rich sands and kaolinitic muds in siliciclastic sediments developed during humid tropical weathering in crystalline basement shield provenance in Africa and South America. By analogy to modern tropical cases, muds composed of major kaolinite with minor smectite and illite at deposition, were diagenetically transformed to illite-rich rocks by possible microbial action, at surface to shallow (<200 m, <40 °C) burial with influx of K, Rb and Mg from seawater. In sandstones, early open system diagenesis with calcite cementation and quartz overgrowths occurred at <1 km depth and < 40 °C. Further closed system silica diagenesis and K-metasomatism, occurred with deeper burial (to 3+ km and 100 °C) in the Pennsylvanian and Permian and later, during and following uplift of the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains, with establishment of a new fold and thrust belt structural and hydrologic regime. Pressure solution of quartz and the illite to muscovite transformation in shales in the depth range 3–8 km, yielded silica for later generation quartz cement (10- >20%) in sandstone buried >3 km. During deep burial, high temperature (>110 °C) calcite cement from deep basin sources was precipitated in sandstones. Geochemical mass balance estimates, physical, and chemical evidence suggest quartz cement was sourced from within clastic rocks of the Simpson Group with minor external contribution of SiO2. Na is in low abundance due to loss in solution during weathering in the provenance. Rare earth elements (REE) have typical abundances and distributions in shales with enrichment in light REE; littoral environment siltstones and matrix-rich sandstones display enrichment of heavy REE in phosphatic brachiopod shell fragments.

Uranium-rich diagenetic fluids provide the key to unconformity-related uranium mineralization in the Athabasca Basin

The Proterozoic Athabasca Basin is well known for its unusually large-tonnage and high-grade ‘unconformity-related’ uranium (U) deposits, however, explanations for the basin-wide U endowment have not been clearly identified. Previous studies indicate that U-rich brines with up to ~600 ppm U and variable Na/Ca ratios (from Na-dominated to Ca-dominated) were present at the sites of U mineralization, but it is unknown whether such fluids were developed solely in the vicinity of the U deposits or at a basinal scale. Our microthermometric and LA-ICP-MS analyses of fluid inclusions in quartz overgrowths from the barren part of the basin indicate that U-rich brines (0.6 to 26.8 ppm U), including Na-dominated and Ca-dominated varieties, were widely developed in the basin. These U concentrations, although not as high as the highest found in the U deposits, are more than two orders of magnitude higher than most naturally occurring geologic fluids. The basin-scale development of U-rich diagenetic fluids is interpreted to be related to several geologic factors, including availability of basinal brines and U-rich lithologies, and a hydrogeologic framework that facilitated fluid circulation and U leaching. The combination of these favorable conditions is responsible for the U fertility of the Athabasca Basin.

Relationship between diagenesis and the emplacement of bitumen in the Lower Triassic Piramboia Formation sandstones, Paraná Basin, SW Brazil

Outcrops of eolian sandstones of the Lower Triassic Piramboia Formation in the eastern margin of the intracratonic Paraná Basin are known as the main occurrence of tar sandstones in Brazil because contain heavy oil (“tar”). In order to investigate the migration of oil into the sandstones petrographic analyses of dune facies were performed. Optical (transmitted, reflected and epifluorescence lights) and Field Emission Scanning Electron (FE-SEM) microscope studies together with X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses showed that the Piramboia Formation sandstones have not been affected by intense diagenesis. Eogenetic features includes mainly thin, continuous inherited ferruginous clay coatings and minor mechanically infiltrated clay coatings around detrital mineral grains. The authigenesis of smectite and K-feldspar overgrowths precipitation begin to develop and during shallow mesodiagenesis, authigenic smectite was gradually transformed into mixed-layer illite-smectite; K-feldspar overgrowths, quartz overgrowths continuous to develop, and pore-filling calcite cement were formed locally. In the late mesodiagenesis the emplacement of oil occurred, filling pores and covering grains, clay coatings and calcite. During later surface exposure, water washing by meteoric fluids and biodegradation transformed the oil into a heavy oil rich in asphaltenes. The influx of acid meteoric waters caused dissolution of detrital K-feldspars as well as meteoric waters generate organic acids which also caused the dissolution of K-feldspars and the consequent generation of secondary porosity with the precipitation of inter- and intragranular vermicular kaolinite. However, kaolinite can be also a product of eodiagenetic process similar to the occur in the telodiagenesis. To evaluate the porosity of the sandstones microtomography analysis were preformed revealing high porosity volume (ca. 26%) and high volume of porous with connectivity (ca. 26%). Although not currently commercially exploited nowadays the knowledge of the Piramboia tar sandstones diagenetic evolution contributes for a better understanding of the Paraná Basin sedimentary fill during the Lower Triassic.

Thermogenetic degradation of early zeolite cement: An important process for generating anomalously high porosity and permeability in deeply buried sandstone reservoirs?

Abstract Diagenetic explanations to anomalously high porosities and permeabilities in deeply buried sandstones have been presented for many reservoirs. For example, grain coatings of microquartz or chlorite can preserve porosity by preventing succeeding quartz overgrowths, and dissolution of grains or cement can generate secondary porosity. Anomalously high porosity and permeability (up to 25% and 500 mD, respectively) characterize the deeply buried (>5 km) Upper Jurassic shoreface sandstones of the Gert Member (Heno Formation) in the Hejre Field in the Danish Central Graben. Optical, cathodoluminescence and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the petrography and diagenetic changes that resulted in this high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) reservoir. This was supplemented by chemical analyses (ICP-OES and ICP-MS), mineralogical composition (XRD), and oxygen isotope composition of quartz and calcite cement (SIMS). The petrographic investigation shows that none of the known explanations for anomalously high porosity and permeability can be applied, hence a new hypothesis for deeply buried sandstones in contact with lavas and volcaniclastic lithologies is proposed. The new hypothesis includes reducing mechanical compaction due to early patchy zeolite cement, which was sourced from adjacent lavas and volcaniclastic rocks. Locally, stylolites developed where zeolite cement was less effective, hence the present overpressure formed at a later stage. Increased temperatures during burial resulted in thermal instability of the zeolite cement, which was dissolved and authigenic K-feldspar and quartz precipitated instead. This resulted in a reduction of the cement volume of up to 70% if the zeolite was K-heulandite and a corresponding relative porosity-increase. Thus, a reduction in cement-volume was generated by replacing zeolite of an open crystal structure with mineral phases, K-feldspar and quartz, of denser crystal structures. The thermogenetic breakdown of zeolite was forced by increased temperatures during burial. This process may explain previously enigmatic highly porous and permeable deeply buried sandstone reservoirs.

Effects of clay content, cement and mineral composition characteristics on sandstone rock strength and deformability behaviors

To keep the stability and integrity of wellbore, it is required to figure out the interaction between clays, water and rock strength in the drilling process. As revealed in available literatures, a high content of clays usually leads to a low value of rock strength and can easily result in the deformation of rocks. However, few studies can succeed in taking the mineral composition and the cement type of clays into consideration. By combining scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis with the Brazilian tests, this research can explain the overall effects of clays on the rock strength and deformability behaviors in three kinds of sandstones. The results indicate that the content contrast cannot be a determinant factor in specifying the rock strength. When compared with a lower value, a higher clay content can also exhibit high tensile strength due to a difference in the cement and mineral composition characteristics of clays. Moreover, chlorites were found to contribute more to the strength loss when encountered with water than montmorillonite and illite. This is most likely due to its undulatory surface which can trap much water and thus locally cause massive expansion of clays. According to the cement types, the fracture patterns can be classified into three groups: (1) Grain sliding occurs when abundant clays cement the matrix. The fracture goes through the soft clay cement and the contact surface between clays and grains. (2) Grain fracturing occurs when the clays cannot prohibit the quartz overgrowth, and the fracture can run across the silica-cemented grains. (3) Grain shearing occurs when the rock matrix is unconsolidated and is filled with few clays between grains. The fracture tends to break the rock grains apart in an irregular behavior. Meanwhile, the strengthening mechanism of lost circulation materials was also studied by tracking their migrations through porous media using energy-dispersive system (EDS).

Diagenesis of the Sappington Formation in the Bridger Range, Montana: Implications for the burial and thermal history of the Western Crazy Mountain Basin

The Devonian-Mississippian Sappington Formation in the Bridger Range, Montana was investigated for its paragenetic sequence and thermal history. These results were used to establish a burial history for the area and compared to data from nearby oil and gas wells. The paragenetic evolution of the Sappington includes early diagenetic feldspar dissolution, formation of quartz overgrowths, and illite precipitation during early diagenesis at temperatures &lt; 50 °C. Subsequent burial diagenesis resulted in the precipitation of non-ferroan and ferroan dolomite, followed by calcite cementation and replacement, pyrite replacement, and hydrocarbon generation and expulsion at temperatures &gt; 130 °C. Devonian formations were the source of the non-ferroan dolomite cement and began precipitating in the latest Mississippian. Subsequent growth of ferroan dolomite resulted from clay transformation reactions in the Upper and Lower Sappington Members and was initiated during rapid burial in the late Cretaceous. The Bridger Range and the adjacent Western Crazy Mountain Basin underwent similar Paleozoic and Mesozoic burial histories. Vastly different Cenozoic burial histories resulted from movement along the Cross Range and Pass thrusts that caused the Bridger Range to begin uplift prior to the cessation of deposition of the Livingston Group in the early Paleocene. The discrepancies in burial history caused the Sappington Formation to reach a maximum temperature of ~135 °C in the Bridger Range and ~230 °C in the western Crazy Mountain Basin.

Triple oxygen and hydrogen isotopic study of hydrothermally altered rocks from the 2.43–2.41 Ga Vetreny belt, Russia: An insight into the early Paleoproterozoic seawater

Abstract The early Paleoproterozoic represents a period of rapid changes in Earth systems that could have affected the stable isotopic composition of seawater. The well-preserved pillow structures, hyaloclastites and komatiitic basalts of the 2.43–2.41 Ga Vetreny belt, Baltic Shield provide a record of high-temperature water-rock interaction induced by contemporaneous seawater. Here we present results of mineralogical, fluid inclusion, hydrogen, and triple oxygen isotopic analysis of hydrothermal alteration products. Emphasis is given to vein-filling quartz and epidote as they likely formed at high water-rock ratios. Ten minerals pairs, quartz-epidote and quartz-calcite, returned temperatures of isotopic equilibrium between 286 and 387 °C, which compares well to the homogenization temperatures measured for saline fluid inclusions hosted in vein quartz. The computed δD and δ18O values of equilibrium fluids range between −31 and +12‰, and −1.36 and +3.20‰, respectively, which overlap with the isotopic composition of ice-free world seawater and fluids generated at submarine hydrothermal systems. This is the earliest piece of evidence suggesting that early Paleoproterozoic seawater had a δD value close to 0‰. We also present triple oxygen isotopic composition of quartz and epidote that formed in similar facies of hydrothermal alteration from the relatively young (6–7 Ma) oceanic crust as sampled by the ODP Hole 504B in the eastern Pacific Ocean. These data show similarity to the triple oxygen isotope analyses of the Vetreny belt rocks indicating that the 2.43–2.41 Ga seawater had the Δ17O value close to that of modern-day seawater. Due to small fractionation at 300–390 °C (αepidote-water ≈ 1), epidotes present a strong evidence that equilibrium fluids had Δ′17O values close to 0‰. Based on the previously published quartz-water calibration, the computed Δ17O values of equilibrium fluids range between −0.11 and −0.03‰, significantly lower than that of seawater or inferred seawater-derived fluids at low water-rock ratios. This can be explained by multiple factors including phase separation of fluids or/and presence of low-temperature quartz overgrowths. Both are reflected in the fluid inclusion data and in situ δ18O measurements by ion microprobe (SIMS) presented here. Overall, our study suggests that the δ18O, Δ17O and δD values of the 2.43–2.41 Ga seawater were −1.7 ± 1.1, −0.001 ± 0.011 and 0 ± 20‰ respectively, similar to the modern values, which reflects the dominant role of submarine hydrothermal alteration in the stable isotopic budget of seawater throughout Earth’s history.

Reservoir quality in the Jurassic sandstone reservoirs located in the Central Graben, North Sea

Abstract This study investigates the diagenesis and reservoir quality of Upper Jurassic Sandstones of Ula Formation from the Central Graben. Petrophysical and Petrographical studies have been done on cored interval from well 2/1-6 of Ula Field. Precipitation of quartz cement is the main porosity destroying process in deeply buried, quartz-rich sandstone reservoirs of the North Sea. Quartz cement precipitates in the form of syntaxial overgrowth over detrital grain of quartz. Grain coatings, like micro-quartz and illite, are the main reasons for preservation of porosity in sandstones as they cover the grain and inhibit the quartz overgrowth. Petrographical data in this study clearly indicates that grain coatings are present in the studied samples. Micro-quartz grain coating is the most common grain coat in the Upper Jurassic Sandstones of Ula, which is generated from the transformation of siliceous sponge spicules known as Rhaxella Perforata. Clay grain coats like illite and chlorite are also present. Relation between Intergranular Volume (IGV) versus Matrix and Quartz Cementation versus Porosity have also been studied. IGV is strongly affected by mechanical compaction, grain size, grain shape, quartz, and carbonate cements. Sandstones with high amount of matrix and fine grains have high IGV as compared to coarse grains because coarse grains are compacted more when they are subjected to mechanical compaction. Grain shape also has a pronounced effect on porosity. Angular grains tend to lose porosity easier as they are subjected to stress.

Diagenetic Environment of Sandstones from the Ermaying Formation (Middle Triassic), North-eastern Margin of the Ordos Basin, China: Implications for the Erosion Vulnerability of the Pi Sandstone

A hard layer of calcite cemented sandstones overlaid weakly consolidated mudstones occur in the Middle Triassic, Ermaying Formation in the eastern margin of the Ordos Basin, China, were examined to reveal the diagenetic environment of Pi sandstone. The Pi sandstone refers to a type of terrigenous clastic rock assemblage composed mainly of sandstone, siltstone and mudstone with red and white color, which is characterized by exposing or being covered with sand or loess, vulnerable to weathering and erosion, distributed in the contiguous area of Shaanxi province, Inner Mongolia autonomous region and Shanxi province in China, and formed during Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic. The “Pi” comes from the folk name (pishuang) of arsenic in Chinese, the appellation of the “Pi sandstone” means that it is harmful to soil and water conservation. The Pi sandstone samples were collected from a sheet-like sandstones deposited in ephemeral river. Petrographic observation show that the samples studied carry a semi-arid climate signal, are cemented by mictrie (microcrystalline calcite), sparry (coarse-crystalline) calcite as well as quartz overgrowths. The δ13C and δ18O values of calcite in the studied are –6.2 to – 3.8 ‰ PDB and from–10.2 to –8.9‰ PDB, respectively. The evidence from petrography and stable isotopes suggests that the cementation of the sandstone mainly occurred in the vadose - phreatic environment.

Analysis of the Factors that Influence Diagenesis in the Terminal Fan Reservoir of Fuyu Oil Layer in the Southern Songliao Basin, Northeast China

AbstractThe diagenesis mechanism and the physical properties of a terminal fan reservoir are determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The main provenance directions are NE and SE, and the two oppositely directed fans converge to form a small catchment basin. The mudstone color is red or purplish red, which accounts for 60% of the total rock. The sandstones are lithic-feldspar sandstones and feldspar-lithic sandstones, with a smaller quartz component relative to the adjacent sandstone formations. The reservoir mainly consists of intergranular pores (51%), intragranular pores (22%), corrosion pores (20%), micro-fractures (5%) and clay matrix pores (2%). The porosity of the reservoir is only 13%, and the throats are fine with high displacement pressure. The diagenetic processes included compaction, cementation, replacement, and dissolution, and the most influential factor on the reservoir porosity was compaction. The detrital rock cement mainly consists of clay minerals (48%), quartz (23%), carbonate (19%), feldspar (7%) and dawsonite (3%). Among them, the mixed I/S layer has the most content and the most important cementation. In addition, a small amount of dawsonite is found in the pores of the sandstone, which is a unique mineral that is related to the background of inorganic CO2. The main diagenesis factors that affected this sandstone’s porosity were compaction, early quartz overgrowth and calcite cementation, which reduced the porosity from 40% to approximately 8%. Although dissolution and fracture increased the porosity (from 8% to 26%), clay- and carbonate-mineral cementation during the late diagenesis period had a dramatic effect, forming a typical low-porosity and low-permeability reservoir.

Diagenesis of Upper Jurassic sandstones of the Blokelv-1 core in the Jameson Land Basin, East Greenland

Petrographic analysis combined with X-ray diffraction are used to identify the diagenetic changes that have affected the porosity and permeability of gravity-flow sandstones of the Oxfordian–Volgian Hareelv Formation in the cored Blokelv-1 borehole in Jameson Land. Kaolinite replacement of albite grains probably occurred early after deposition and microquartz coatings formed under shallow burial. At deeper burial, illite and quartz formed from kaolinite and K-feldspar. Pervasive ankerite cement formed in the finest grained sandstones and may have formed at the expense of early calcite cement. Quartz overgrowths are volumetrically small, partly due to inhibition by microquartz coatings and partly due to limited residence time during deep burial. The succession reached the maximum burial depth of c. 2.8 km during the late Eocene. Basaltic material was intruded into the sediments during the early Eocene and the enhanced heat flow accelerated diagenesis in the close vicinity of the intrusions, which have thicknesses of up to 2 m. Most of the sandstones have porosities between 14.4 and 25.7% and permeabilities between 0.4 and 411.9 mD; this variation resulted from a combination of microquartz coatings and clay minerals. However, the intrusion-influenced sandstones and the ankerite-cemented sandstones have lower porosity and permeability.

Provenance and diagenesis of Guamá Sandstone, northeastern Pará, Brazil: A Silurian link between the Amazonas and Parnaíba basins

The Guamá Sandstone, exposed in small isolated outcrops in the northeastern region of the State of Pará (Brazil), which are surrounded by Cenozoic sediments, represents a Silurian relic of the Amazonas and Parnaiba basins connected during the Paleozoic and separated only since the Triassic period through the development of the Marajó Basin. Previous outcrop-based studies showed that the Guamá Sandstone is a fine to medium-grained quartzarenite, with high compositional and textural maturity, which was deposited in a coastal marine setting (foreshore/shoreface), correlatable with the environment of the Silurian Nhamundá Formation of the Amazonas Basin. The principal primary sources of the sandstone are associated with rocks formed during the Transamazonico and Brasiliano Cycles according to isotopic dating of zircon. In order to better understand provenance and diagenesis of the Guamá Sandstone core samples of a 50 m deep bore hole, located 6 km north of the town of São Miguel do Guamá, have been studied. The sandstone is usually bioturbated and massive, but planar stratification (foreshore) and cross bedding (shoreface), the latter in the lower part of the profile, are also present indicating a transgressive to regressive coastline. In addition to quartz, the Guamá Sandstone is composed of the following detrital accessory minerals: zircon, tourmaline, rutile, epidote, mica, ilmenite and chromite while kamacite occurred only sporadically indicating, at least for the latter, origin from Fe-Ni-meteorites. Provenance data obtained from the composition of zircon and tourmaline grains, as well as from internal textures of zircon, point to primary igneous and metamorphic source rocks of the Guamá Sandstone. While zircon is principally of magmatic origin, tourmaline grains are derived dominantly from metapelitic, metapsammitic and granitoid rocks. However, pre-existing sediments probably represent, to a lesser extent, the ultimate direct source as suggested by the well-rounded grains of the quartz arenite and worn tourmaline overgrowths. The diagenetic phases of the sandstone include syntaxial quartz overgrowths, microquartz, kaolinite booklets, illite and anatase. The quartz overgrowths are pseudo-zoned and engulf parts of the kaolinite booklets. These may be surrounded by microquartz which usually replaced quartz overgrowths. Illite, which is rare, is probably the product of replacement of kaolinite, and anatase may be related to partial dissolution of ilmenite. The main diagenetic processes including precipitation of quartz and kaolinite began during eodiagenesis, in shallow burial conditions, and proceeded through mesodiagenesis as suggested by multi-episodic quartz zoning and formation of illite. The early precipitation of kaolinite is related to alteration of feldspar and mica caused through flushing of meteoric water during forced marine regression and uplift, probably still in Silurian time. The sources for quartz cementation may include kaolinitization of feldspar and pressure dissolution, the latter associated to concavo-convex and sutured grain contacts, although these types of contact are relatively rare. Therefore, external silica-rich solutions likely occurred.