Quarry Sites Research Articles

Heavy metal contamination of cassava (Manihot esculentum) grown on quarry soils in Umunneochi Abia state and its health implications

Contamination of agricultural soils by quarry activities is posing serious challenges food security in greater parts of the Sub-Saharan Africa. This study determined the heavy metals in soils and cassava (Manihot esculentum) tubers obtained from three different quarry sites in Umunneochi, Abia State Nigeria. Samples of soil and cassava tubers were collected in replicates following the direction of natural drainage, while control samples were obtained against the direction of natural drainage from the quarry pits. Soil and cassava tuber samples were collected and subjected to standard physicochemical analyses. Heavy metal concentration in the quarry soil and cassava tubers varied significantly from the control except for Cd (mg/kg) at P<0.05. All heavy metals identified in the soil were also present in the cassava tuber samples, with Al concentration in the quarry soils correlating positively (0.977**) with that of cassava tubers. The quarry activities contributed to the heavy metal levels of quarry soils and responsible for the accumulation of heavy metals in cassava tubers that could lead to food insecurity and public health concerns. This further brings to fore the challenges and need to review and update mining and quarry regulations in Nigeria.

Analysis of the techniques for assessing the features of blast-induced fragmentation in an open pit quarry

The paper deals with the study of empirical models for the analysis of blasts-induced fragmentation. To verify the reliability of the method, the results obtained a priori through the application of the models are compared with the analyses of muck piles photos taken from a series of blasts in an open pit quarry, thanks to the Split-desktop software (Split Engineering, LLC, Tucson, USA). The study of the particle size distribution is very important when sizing an excavation site, as the average size of the pile must be compatible with the equipment used for clearing and conveyance, and with the first phase of the processing plant, i.e. primary crushing. After a description of the excavation technique in use at the quarry site, its main characteristics are outlined. The parameters used to create the empirical models refer to the geomechanical characteristics of the rock, the geometry of the blasts, the characteristics of the explosive and its interaction with the rock mass, paying attention to the correlation between initiation timing and induced fragmentation. A detailed description of some empirical models together with the Split-desktop software were therefore provided. Thanks to both data and photos of the muck-piles from the exploitation at the quarry, the particle size curves resulting from each model were compared with those obtained from the software. This allowed to validate the empirical method in a preliminary design phase.

Insular networks: An exploration of material distribution, insularity and island identity on the edge of Europe in the Shetland Neolithic

Shortly after arriving in the Shetland archipelago early in the 4th millennium BC, communities began to quarry and make stone tools from riebeckite felsite, quarried from the Northmavine region of North Mainland. The effort expended traveling to the quarry sites, extracting, making and crafting tools was considerable indicating the importance of felsite to Neolithic communities. Results from the North Roe Felsite Project are presented in this paper. The quarrying and distribution of felsite in Shetland can tell us much about insularity, choice, and island identities on a wider scale. The geospatial distribution of 416 felsite tools from across the archipelago was explored. Felsite is used to make tools for utilitarian and ceremonial purposes and, with two exceptions compromising 0.33% of the total dataset, no tools can be securely provenanced outside of Shetland. At a time of increasing communications elsewhere in the Neolithic world, communities in Shetland appear to become focused on the archipelago. This insularity is also evident in contemporary material culture including pottery and funerary structures which do not follow mainland or Orcadian styles, strongly suggesting an island-focused society during this period. Recent radiocarbon dates suggest that these dynamics were established in the Early Neolithic, before 3500 BC. Felsite, therefore, allows us to explore the otherwise elusive early prehistory of the islands. The distribution network of tools from the quarry complex around the archipelago strongly indicates a preference for maritime travel and transportation, even where terrestrial routes are available. The patterns also suggest settlement and activity across Shetland with important foci at previously understudied locations across North and West Mainland. The study has considerable implications for understanding movement, choice, and identity in past island societies and their relationship to material culture.

The pilot application of geochemical sourcing to an inland Pilbara archaeological landscape in north-western Australia

Past human mobility, often reconstructed using stone artefact assemblages, is an important component of Australian archaeology. Tracing the transport of stone artefacts enables direct measures of the direction and distance of past Aboriginal movement across landscapes. Sourcing transported stone artefacts to their geological point of origin therefore has the potential to significantly improve our understanding of human mobility. Beyond this, the identification of artefact source locations is also critical for stone artefact analyses since raw material factors strongly condition assemblage formation. However, relatively little stone sourcing has been completed in Australia. This is particularly the case for the inland Pilbara, north-western Australia, where almost no sourcing work has been published. This paper presents the results of a limited pilot study which aimed to test the application of petrographic and in situ laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) analytical techniques to the sourcing of transported artefacts from three Pilbara quarried outcrops to two non-quarried open surface sites. The results indicate that geochemical interelement ratios (e.g., La/Nd and U/Th) can discriminate between both quarry sites and artefacts. A clear petrographic and geochemical match between a quarry and one stone artefact discarded at a non-quarried site was found, and different samples collected from the same quarry yielded overlapping geochemical signatures. This suggests that LA-ICPMS has the potential to elucidate artefact transport (as a proxy for the movement of people) between locations, effectively linking these places as part of a behavioural system. While a larger database of artefact and quarry specimens is needed to fully explore both the efficacy of the approach and the archaeological implications, this study suggests that sourcing techniques hold significant promise for reconstructing past human mobility in the Pilbara and for demonstrating landscape-scale connections between sites.

Dilemma of Geoconservation of Monogenetic Volcanic Sites under Fast Urbanization and Infrastructure Developments with Special Relevance to the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand

Geoheritage is an important aspect in developing workable strategies for natural hazard resilience. This is reflected in the UNESCO IGCP Project (# 692. Geoheritage for Geohazard Resilience) that continues to successfully develop global awareness of the multifaced aspects of geoheritage research. Geohazards form a great variety of natural phenomena that should be properly identified, and their importance communicated to all levels of society. This is especially the case in urban areas such as Auckland. The largest socio-economic urban center in New Zealand, Auckland faces potential volcanic hazards as it sits on an active Quaternary monogenetic volcanic field. Individual volcanic geosites of young eruptive products are considered to form the foundation of community outreach demonstrating causes and consequences of volcanism associated volcanism. However, in recent decades, rapid urban development has increased demand for raw materials and encroached on natural sites which would be ideal for such outreach. The dramatic loss of volcanic geoheritage of Auckland is alarming. Here we demonstrate that abandoned quarry sites (e.g., Wiri Mountain) could be used as key locations to serve these goals. We contrast the reality that Auckland sites are underutilized and fast diminishing, with positive examples known from similar but older volcanic regions, such as the Mio/Pliocene Bakony–Balaton UNESCO Global Geopark in Hungary.

A Preliminary Perspective of Industrial Heritage and Geo-Tourism in the Quarry Site of Bir Hammamat

Abstract Bir Hammamat (Persou I) was an important stone quarry for the extraction of greywacke (Bekhn stone) in the Egyptian Eastern Desert that represents a comprehensive image of the stone quarrying process, extraction activities and the life of a quarrymen community. In addition to the archaeological findings, quarrying activities have culturally created a memory of the industrial society. The paper investigates some historical and cultural aspects related to the technical and industrial heritage of Bir Hammamat ranging from the pre-dynastic period until the Roman period. A long quarrying history that left behind a series of tools, settlements, paths, forts and inscriptions. These relics can promote certain types of sustainable tourism where the ancient quarrying industry and technology become a tourist attraction and consequently enhance the preservation of the ancient quarry site heritage and landscape through innovative projects and new itineraries, a step that was started by the author himself during a site survey as a part of a research program in the university of Padua, Italy between 2014 – 2015.

Multi-Criteria Analysis for the Selection of the Optimal Mining Design Solution—A Case Study on Quarry “Tambura”

Mining design is usually evaluated with different multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods when it comes to large open pit or underground ore mines, but it is not used on quarry sites. Since Croatia is mostly mining stone, the implementation of such methods in decision making of the quarry mine design is imperative but left out. In this paper, the PROMETHEE II and AHP decision-making methods are implemented on the quarry site to find out the best final quarry design contour. By implementing the MCDM methods, the best quarry model was chosen based on 22 different criteria parameters out of three final quarry designs. The chosen model is not only financially sound but also has the least environmental impact.

A UAV-GPR Fusion Approach for the Characterization of a Quarry Excavation Area in Falconara Albanese, Southern Italy

The characterization of a quarry site which is suitable for railway ballast aggregate production represents a big challenge for the mining industry. The knowledge of structural discontinuities within local geological materials is fundamental to guide mining operations, optimize investments, and guarantee quarry security. This research work presents an innovative methodology for the subsurface investigation of a quarry excavation area down to a depth of about 50 m in Falconara Albanese, Calabria, Italy. The proposed methodological approach incorporates photogrammetry, drone technology, and GPR data acquisition and processing. Photogrammetry represents the first step for obtaining a 3D topographical model reconstruction of the whole quarry, helping to detail the acquisition approach and properly plan the subsequent drone survey. In particular, two 120 MHz antennas have been mounted on the drone and two profiles have been acquired above and across the quarry. Results show the presence of fractured material and demonstrate the applicability of the method for identification of areas that are more suitable for railway ballast production. The presented method is therefore capable of detecting subsurficial fractures at a quarry site by means of a relatively fast and cost-effective procedure. Results are achieved within the framework of an industry project.

The Effects of Small-scale Stone Quarrying on Poverty Reduction among Youths in Zamfara State, Nigeria

The paper examined the effects of small-scale stone quarrying on poverty reduction among youths in Zamfara State. The paper is based on the argument that small-scale stone quarrying has the potentials to reduce poverty in low income settings. Zamfara is one of the poorest states in Nigeria where youths are engaged in small-scale quarrying. The paper examined the extent to which small-scale quarrying has been able to reduced poverty among youths in the State. The sample size of the study comprised of 400 respondents. Structured interview was used as the primary instrument of data collection. Purposive sampling techniques was used to select quarry sites while simple random sampling technique was used to select respondents for the study. Data collected was presented in tables and percentages for better understanding. The outcome of the study revealed that youths between ages of 26-35 years were actively involved in small-scale stone quarrying in Zamfara State. The study found out that small-scale stone quarrying had a positive effect on poverty reduction among youths in Zamfara State. This is because after joining small-scale stone quarrying, majority of youths had improved access to food, healthcare facilities, housing, sleeping materials, clothing and ownership of means of transportation. The major factors limiting youth involvement in small-scale stone quarrying were lack of modern quarrying equipment, absence of personal protective gadgets and ignorance about government regulations in the mining industry. The study therefore recommends that government should assist quarry workers with modern quarry equipment, personal protective gadgets and sensitization on government regulations in the mining industry.

1D resistivity inversion technique in the mapping of igneous intrusives; A step to sustainable quarry development

The use of trial pits as a first step in quarry site development causes land degradation and results in more failure than success for potential quarry investors in some parts of the world. In this paper, resistivity, depth and distance values derived from 26 Vertical Electric Soundings (VES) and 2 profiling inversion sections were successfully used to evaluate a quarry site prior to development. The target rock Diabase (Dolerite) was observed and it had a resistivity range of 3.0 × 104 –7. 8 × 106 Ω-m, and was clearly distinguishable from associated rocks with its bright red color code on the AGI 1D inversion software. This target rock was overlain by quartzite, indurate shale and mudstone as overburden materials. The quartzite, with its off-red colour, has a resistivity range of 2.0 × 103–2.9 × 105 Ω-m, while the indurate shale, with a yellowish-brown colour, showed resistivity values ranging from 6.1 × 102 – 2.8 × 105 Ω-m. Topsoil was clayey, with a resistivity range from 8 – 8.6 × 102u Ω-m and depths of 0.3–1.8 m, often weathered and replaced by associated rocks outcrops. The diabase rock, in the three prospective pits mapped, showed thicknesses of between 40 and 76 m across the site. The prospective pits were identified to accommodate an estimated 2,569,450 tonnes of diabase with an average quarry pit depth of 50 m. This figure was justified by physical observations made at a nearby quarry pit and from test holes. Communities were able to prepare a geophysical appraisal of the intrusive body in their domain for economic planning and sustainability of the natural resource.

A novel solution for simulating air overpressure resulting from blasting using an efficient cascaded forward neural network

Air overpressure (AOp) is a hazardous effect induced by the blasting method in surface mines. Therefore, it needs to be predicted to reduce the potential risk of damage. The aim of this study is to offer an efficient method to predict AOp using a cascaded forward neural network (CFNN) trained by Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) algorithm, called the CFNN-LM model. Additionally, a generalized regression neural network (GRNN) and extreme learning machine (ELM) were employed to demonstrate the accuracy level of the proposed CFNN-LM model. To conduct the CFNN-LM, GRNN, and ELM models, an extensive database, related to four quarry sites in Malaysia, was used including 62 sets of dependent and independent parameters. Next, the performances of the aforementioned models were checked and discussed through statistical criteria and efficient graphical tools. Finally, the results showed the superiority of CFNN-LM (R2 = 0.9263 and RMSE = 3.0444) over GRNN (R2 = 0.7787 and RMSE = 5.1211) and ELM (R2 = 0.6984 and RMSE = 6.2537) models in terms of prediction accuracy. Furthermore, three different regression analysis metrics were used to perform the sensitivity analysis, and according to the obtained results, the maximum charge per delay ( $$\beta$$ = 0.475, SE = 0.115, t-test = 4.125) was considered as the most influential feature in modeling the AOp.

Evaluation of some Medicinal Plants for Green Belt Development in Rock Quarrying Locations at Lokpaukwu, Abia State, Nigeria

This study evaluated air pollution tolerance plants as well as anticipated performance indices of some medicinal plants growing in the Lokpaukwu rock quarrying area in order ascertain their suitability for green belt development. Two quarry locations A which is older and has a higher level of activity, and B were used for the study with a control location at Abia State University, Uturu. Out of the sixteen dominant plant species identified, five species; Alchornea cordifolia, Baphia pubescens, Napoleona imperialis, Nauclea latifolia and Vitex doniana. were randomly selected for the study. Leaf samples were randomly collected in triplicate from the lowest branch of each selected plants with similar characteristics. Relative water content of plants was significantly higher (p&lt;0.05) at the study area suggesting stomatal occlusion by dust while chlorophyll content was significantly lower at the quarry sites, a clear indication of pollution stress. Chlorophyll content was also lower in all plants at site B, being significant in N. imperialis and V. doniana. N. imperialis had the highest APTI of 19.15 at the quarry site suggesting suitability for green belt development at the quarry site. Based on API, V. doniana is the most suitable for green belt development among the five plant species.

Influence of Aggregates on Stripping Behavior of Bituminous Mixes

Moisture damage leads to premature failure of flexible pavements. The removal of bituminous coating from aggregates lead to the disintegration of bituminous mixes and is known as stripping. Various mechanisms and factors have been identified to play a role in the process, properties of aggregates being one of the major factors. This study is an attempt to analyze the influence of chemical, mineralogical and physical properties of aggregates on the stripping propensity of the loose mix. For this purpose, aggregates are chosen from six different quarry sites with diverse chemical compositions used for construction and maintenance of a large network of roads. Stripping tests are thereafter conducted on the aggregates using different percentage of hydrated lime. The amount of hydrated lime required for the prevention of stripping for concerned aggregate sources is determined. The research leads to the findings that the presence of elements such as silicon and potassium leads to a decrease in bond strength whereas the presence of calcium, sodium, iron, magnesium and aluminium enhanced the bond strength. Statistical tools and techniques are used to verify the results. Comparatively softer aggregates showed lesser resistance to stripping which could be inferred from aggregate impact and Los Angeles abrasion tests. The findings of the study can be helpful in the selection of aggregates with different chemical content for bituminous road construction depending upon the sensitivity to stripping. Doi: 10.28991/cej-2021-03091671 Full Text: PDF

Sourcing the source: Bald Eagle Jasper quarries and the Houserville Habitation Complex

The construction of a road extension of Park Avenue through the Pennsylvania State University’s agricultural fields offered an opportunity to reinvestigate, in more detail, the Tudek jasper quarry site (36CE238). The original investigation was led by Dr. James Hatch and graduate students from the University’s Department of Anthropology. Initial studies yielded in excess of 27,000 artifacts that were used in this analysis. Our reinvestigation resulted in the construction of a detailed outline of the quarry site and the pattern of usage of the materials from the site. Additionally, radiocarbon dating indicated that the site was intensively utilized for a long period of time (3500 BC to 1500 AD) and confirmed that, like many quarry sites, the activities included primary materials collection and testing, reduction of the lithic materials for transport to another location where the final finishing of tools took place. Moreover, the availability of raw material likely changed through time and across the quarry. Observed color changes in the jasper suggest some heat treatment on site, primarily during later time periods.

In vivo Activity of Dust Inhalation at Ratcon Quarry, Sokuro Village, Oluyole, Ibadan Oyo State

A total of twenty (20) experimental adult male rats, aged 60 days (7 to 8 weeks) with average body weight between 150-200 gm were grouped, restrained inside laboratory approved plastic holders and exposed to dust inhalation at the quarry site with exposure time of 7, 14 and 21 days to reflect short-term effects while 42days represent long-term effects of dust inhalation on human beings. Each specimen was collected and sacrificed at their grouped survival periods and subjected to laboratory analysis that include Hematology and Histopathology of the lungs. The Hematologyresults of the 7 and 14days specimens revealed no remarkable changes in the Erythrogram (PCV, HB and RBC), the Leucogram (WBC) and the Platelets but however, the results of the 21 and 42 days specimen revealed leukocytosis (increase in WBC), lymphocytosis (increase Lym) and neutrophilia (increase neutrophils) (p&lt;0.05). The Histopathology results of the first specimen (7 days exposure) showed no observable lesion, the second specimen(14 days) showed capillary congestion and mild interstitial pneumonia, while the third (21 days) and fourth (42 days) samples showed the rats graduating from mild to moderate interstitial pneumonia and oedema. The risk of these diseases depends on the amount of organic or inorganic dusts inhaled and deposited in the alveolar region, the air concentration of respirable dust as well as the exposure time and breathing pattern.

TES analysis for crushed stone aggregate quarry site selection: the case of limestone terrain around Harer-Dire Dawa towns, Eastern Ethiopia

The quality of crushed stone aggregates influences the durability and performance of pavement and concrete as they are the dominant component in the mix. Hence, the selection of a suitable quarry site with the quality source material is essential. Since the quarry site suitability assessment involves various factors, it is more economical to follow a stage-wise suitability assessment approach (i.e., preliminary evaluation and then refinement based on field data). The preliminary evaluation was done using readily available data in the office such as lithology, land use–land cover, proximity to built-up areas, distance to watercourses, distance to existing roads, relative relief, and slope angle. The purpose of the present work is to refine the preliminary limestone crushed stone aggregate suitability map (produced in the preceding work) considering the rock mass quality, slope stability, reserve, depth to groundwater table, and overburden thickness. The required data, such as unconfined compressive strength, rock quality designation, and geometrical properties of discontinuity, were collected during a detailed field survey from preliminary highly and moderately suitable sites. Rock mass classification systems, such as rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR), were used to assess rock mass quality and slope stability, respectively. The weighting scheme approach is then applied and the ratings assigned to each factor (RMR, SMR, reserve, depth to water table, and overburden thickness) summed up to produce a total estimated suitability (TES) map. The map showed that 40.4% of the preliminary suitable sites are unsuitable, 20.3% moderately suitable, 14.7% highly suitable, and 24.7% most suitable.

The King’s Jasper Quarry, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania

The King’s Quarry site (36LH2), located in the Reading Prong region of eastern Pennsylvania, is one of six remaining jasper quarries mapped by the late James Hatch and reported in 1994. Several archaeological investigations were conducted there in preparation for a housing development. These investigations included controlled surface collections, hand excavated test units, and extensive mechanical investigations of mining pits. Pre-Contact era quarry pits were profiled in what appeared to be the most intensively mined area of the site. Several charcoal samples were collected from the profile which documented a prehistoric excavation over 7 m deep. A Paleoindian fluted preform along with other typical Paleoindian tools were recovered from the perimeter of the quarry pit. We present the results of the field testing and an extensive analysis of the artifacts. Despite the jumble of overlapping mining pits and historic farming activities, the site retains both horizontal and vertical integrity.

Low temperature grain-scale retrograde alteration of detrital minerals in Ajali formation from Benin Flank Of Anambra Basin, Nigeria

Petrographical study of detrital and authigenic minerals from the Ajali Formation in the Benin flank of Anambra Basin was carried out with the aim of interpreting the textural characteristics and alteration patterns. Samples were collected from Ayowgiri sand quarry site and along Fugar-Agenebode road where good exposures of the Ajali Sandstone occurred. Heavy minerals were concentrated using bromoform according to standard procedures. The heavy mineral concentrates were mounted on glass slides with araldite glue. In addition, thin sections of sandstone were prepared. The samples were studied with the aid of polarizing microscopes. The textural features and relationships among the heavy minerals were used in the interpretations. The results indicate that the detrital heavy minerals (Fe-Ti oxides and garnet) have undergone a very low-temperatureretrograde changes rather than ordinary in-situ dissolution by weathering and burial diagenesis. The alteration of Fe-Ti oxides resulted into the formation of leucoxene and chlorite while that of garnet resulted only into the formation of chlorite. Detrital magnetite was partially dissolved with skeletal remains while the authigenic grains showed well preserved structures. The re-equilibration of these minerals and partial dissolution were probably due to rise in temperature and change in the chemistry of the formation water. Reducing and acidic conditions at elevated temperature probably favoured dissolution and alteration of the detrital Fe-oxides while the formation of authigenic hematite was aided by oxidizing condition. Temperature increase was probably induced by either underneath thin lithospheric plate or igneous activities at the center of the basin. The conversion of the detrital minerals to authigenic chlorite and partial replacement structures represent a typical case of retrograde reaction which could be described as evidence of a very low-temperature anchi-metamorphism at mineral grain level.&#x0D; Key words: Authigenic, chlorite, Fe-oxides, garnet, retrograde, anchi-metamorphism.

Natural stone in the 14th–15th-Century secular buildings of the Novgorod Kremlin

Abstract A study of the natural stone in the masonry of secular buildings – two palaces of Novgorodian archbishops from the 14th and 15th centuries – was made as part of the extensive archaeological and restoration work in the Novgorod Kremlin that began in 2006. The two structures are unique among mediaeval Novgorodian architecture of the 12th–15th centuries, other surviving examples of which are exclusively church buildings. The aim of the study was to determine whether the intended function of a building had on the particularities of the selection of types of stone and the choice of quarry sites. The main methods of study were laboratory analyses (thin section microscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis). which showed that the durable, but hard to work, limestone used in the walls of the buildings was quarried for the most part from the Il’men Clint, 50 km from Novgorod on the other side of Lake Il’men. For paving floors, however, the builders used trimmed slabs of limestone obtained in a different place, possibly on the River Shelon’, 70 km from Novgorod or further afield. A comparison with other works of Novgorodian architecture from the 12th–15th centuries showed that this sort of differentiation between sources for building stone was established practice, as was the use of those particular quarry sites. In the course of this work, we developed a methodology for the identification of limestone that we recommend for use in further studies of the building stone used in Novgorodian architecture. The results obtained are proving important for the resolution of practical tasks in the restoration of Novgorod’s architectural monuments.

Mineralogical and geochemical characterisation of kaolin deposit from Debre Tabor area northwestern, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Debre Tabor kaolin deposit is located around Debre Tabor town in Amhara region of northwestern Ethiopia. The kaolin deposit in the study area needs a detailed study to evaluate the geological, mineralogical, physical, and geochemical conditions. For this purpose, detailed geological, physical, mineralogical, and geochemical laboratory tests were performed. XRD and petrographic analysis were used to study the mineralogical composition. Geochemical analysis was determined using ICP-MS and ICP-AES. The Debre Tabor kaolin deposit is exposed along riverbanks, road cuts, hillside, and quarry sites. The laboratory results reveal that the deposit is formed from the weathering of felsic rocks mainly trachyte and tuff units. From the laboratory analysis, we found that quartz is the dominant impurities. The geological, mineralogical, and geochemical studies indicate that in situ weathering followed by leaching played a major role in the formation of the Debre Tabor kaolin deposit. The average Chemical Index of Alteration (77.98%) shows that the host rock has experienced moderate weathering and alteration under the hot and humid climatic conditions of the subtropical zone. The low bulk density (1.54 g cm−3) and Ce + Y + La vs. Ba + Sr plot correspond to the supergene type of formation. Based on the mineralogical, geochemical, and physical properties, Debre Tabor kaolin deposit can be used for refractory, ceramics, paper coating, and filler (paint) industries, but treatment is important to remove the existing impurities such as iron, quartz, and feldspars.