Quantity Discrimination Research Articles

Spontaneous quantity discrimination of artificial flowers by foraging honeybees

Many animals need to process numerical and quantity information in order to survive. Spontaneous quantity discrimination allows differentiation between two or more quantities without reinforcement or prior training on any numerical task. It is useful for assessing food resources, aggressive interactions, predator avoidance and prey choice. Honeybees have previously demonstrated landmark counting, quantity matching, use of numerical rules, quantity discrimination and arithmetic, but have not been tested for spontaneous quantity discrimination. In bees, spontaneous quantity discrimination could be useful when assessing the quantity of flowers available in a patch and thus maximizing foraging efficiency. In the current study, we assessed the spontaneous quantity discrimination behaviour of honeybees. Bees were trained to associate a single yellow artificial flower with sucrose. Bees were then tested for their ability to discriminate between 13 different quantity comparisons of artificial flowers (numeric ratio range: 0.08-0.8). Bees significantly preferred the higher quantity only in comparisons where '1' was the lower quantity and where there was a sufficient magnitudinal distance between quantities (e.g. 1 versus 12, 1 versus 4, and 1 versus 3 but not 1 versus 2). Our results suggest a possible evolutionary benefit to choosing a foraging patch with a higher quantity of flowers when resources are scarce.

The density bias: Capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella) prefer densely arranged items in a food-choice task.

In the current work, we investigated whether capuchin monkeys preferred densely distributed resources to sparsely distributed resources in a 2-choice discrimination task with edible rewards. Capuchin monkeys were biased to select a denser food set over the same number of food items in a sparsely arranged set. Furthermore, increased density of the larger food set facilitated discrimination performance in quantity comparisons with a true difference in set size. These results align with previous studies demonstrating a preference for densely distributed food sets in infants and callitrichid primates, as well as previous evidence of a density bias among several rhesus macaques and capuchin monkeys in a computerized relative quantity discrimination task. Thus, the density bias appears to emerge across multiple domains and presentation formats for some primate species. The role of density in perceived numerosity by capuchin monkeys and other species as it pertains to the foraging domain is discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The ontogeny of continuous quantity discrimination in zebrafish larvae (Danio rerio).

Several studies have investigated the ontogeny of the capacity to discriminate between discrete numerical information in human and non-human animals. Contrarily, less attention has been devoted to the development of the capacity to discriminate continuous quantities. Recently, we set up a fast procedure for screening continuous quantity abilities in adult individuals of an animal model in neurodevelopmental research, the zebrafish. Two different sized holes are presented in a wall that divides the home tank in two halves and the spontaneous preference of fish for passing through the larger hole is exploited to measure their discrimination ability. We tested zebrafish larvae in the first, second and third week of life varying the relative size of the smaller circle (0.60, 0.75, 0.86, 0.91 area ratio). We found that the number of passages increased across the age. The capacity to discriminate the larger hole decreased as the ratio between the areas increased. No difference in accuracy was found as a function of age. The accuracy of larval zebrafish almost overlaps that found in adults in a previous study, suggesting a limited role of maturation and experience on the ability to estimate areas in this species.

Food quantity discrimination in puppies (Canis lupus familiaris).

There is considerable evidence that animals are able to discriminate between quantities. Despite the fact that quantitative skills have been extensively studied in adult individuals, research on their development in early life is restricted to a limited number of species. We, therefore, investigated whether 2-month-old puppies could spontaneously discriminate between different quantities of food items. We used a simultaneous two-choice task in which puppies were presented with three numerical combinations of pieces of food (1 vs. 8, 1 vs. 6 and 1 vs. 4), and they were allowed to select only one option. The subjects chose the larger of the two quantities in the 1 vs. 8 and the 1 vs. 6 combinations but not in the 1 vs. 4 combination. Furthermore, the last quantity the puppies looked at before making their choice and the time spent looking at the larger/smaller amounts of food were predictive of the choices they made. Since adult dogs are capable of discriminating between more difficult numerical contrasts when tested with similar tasks, our findings suggest that the capacity to discriminate between quantities is already present at an early age, but that it is limited to very easy discriminations.

Universal Screening in Mathematics for Spanish Students in First Grade

The main purpose of this study was to validate the curriculum-based measure Indicadores de Progreso de Aprendizaje en Matemáticas (IPAM [Indicators of Basic Early Math Skills]) in a local, Spanish-speaking context. This tool has been designed to identify first-grade students at risk for mathematics learning disabilities. The IPAM includes five measures (i.e., quantity discrimination, multi-digit computation, missing number, single-digit computation, and place value), which were analyzed as single measures and as part of a composite measure. In this study, 176 first graders were administered the curriculum-based measurement IPAM at the beginning, middle, and end of the school year. The results showed that the composite measure of the IPAM was the best indicator of risk status. Reliability and concurrent and predictive validity results were adequate. Furthermore, receiver operating curve analysis and hierarchical linear model supported the capacity of the IPAM to correctly identify students’ risk status and growth rate during first grade.

Revisiting more or less: influence of numerosity and size on potential prey choice in the domestic cat.

Quantity discrimination is of adaptive relevance in a wide range of contexts and across a wide range of species. Trained domestic cats can discriminate between different numbers of dots, and we have shown that they also spontaneously choose between different numbers and sizes of food balls. In the present study we performed two experiments with 24 adult cats to investigate spontaneous quantity discrimination in the more naturalistic context of potential predation. In Experiment 1 we presented each cat with the simultaneous choice between a different number of live prey (1 white mouse vs. 3 white mice), and in Experiment 2 with the simultaneous choice between live prey of different size (1 white mouse vs. 1 white rat). We repeated each experiment six times across 6 weeks, testing half the cats first in Experiment 1 and then in Experiment 2, and the other half in the reverse order. In Experiment 1 the cats more often chose the larger number of small prey (3 mice), and in Experiment 2, more often the small size prey (a mouse). They also showed repeatable individual differences in the choices which they made and in the performance of associated predation-like behaviours. We conclude that domestic cats spontaneously discriminate between the number and size of potential prey in a way that can be interpreted as adaptive for a lone-hunting, obligate carnivore, and show complex levels of risk-reward analysis.

Supplemental Material for Social Memory and Quantity Discrimination: A Cross Cichlid Species Comparison

Supplemental Material for Social Memory and Quantity Discrimination: A Cross Cichlid Species Comparison

Correction to 'Evidence for individual discrimination and numerical assessment in collective antipredator behaviour in wild jackdaws (Corvus monedula)'.

You have accessMoreSectionsView PDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail Cite this article Coomes Jenny R., McIvor Guillam E. and Thornton Alex 2019Correction to ‘Evidence for individual discrimination and numerical assessment in collective antipredator behaviour in wild jackdaws (Corvus monedula)’Biol. Lett.152019074020190740http://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0740SectionYou have accessCorrectionsCorrection to ‘Evidence for individual discrimination and numerical assessment in collective antipredator behaviour in wild jackdaws (Corvus monedula)’ Jenny R. Coomes Jenny R. Coomes http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6196-5370 Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for more papers by this author , Guillam E. McIvor Guillam E. McIvor http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3922-7651 Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for more papers by this author and Alex Thornton Alex Thornton http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1607-2047 Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for more papers by this author Jenny R. Coomes Jenny R. Coomes http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6196-5370 Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for more papers by this author , Guillam E. McIvor Guillam E. McIvor http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3922-7651 Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for more papers by this author and Alex Thornton Alex Thornton http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1607-2047 Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for more papers by this author Published:06 November 2019https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0740This article corrects the followingResearch ArticleEvidence for individual discrimination and numerical assessment in collective antipredator behaviour in wild jackdaws (Corvus monedula)https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0380 Jenny R. Coomes, Guillam E. McIvor and Alex Thornton volume 15issue 10Biology Letters02 October 2019Biol. Lett.15, 20190380. (Published online 2 October 2019) (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2019.0380)We would like to add the following acknowledgements statement to the publication:Many thanks to Richard Woods for acoustic advice and help with statistics and to Sophie Darnton for coding videos. We are very grateful to the Gluyas family and staff at Pencoose Farm and to Odette Eddy and the people of Stithians where this work was conducted. We are grateful to Ally Phillimore for statistical advice and to three anonymous reviewers for their valuable input. Previous Article VIEW FULL TEXT DOWNLOAD PDF FiguresRelatedReferencesDetailsCited by Gómez-Laplaza L and Gerlai R (2020) Food Quantity Discrimination in Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare): The Role of Number, Density, Size and Area Occupied by the Food Items, Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00106, 14 Related articlesEvidence for individual discrimination and numerical assessment in collective antipredator behaviour in wild jackdaws (Corvus monedula)02 October 2019Biology Letters This IssueNovember 2019Volume 15Issue 11 Article InformationDOI:https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0740PubMed:31690210Published by:Royal SocietyOnline ISSN:1744-957XHistory: Published online06/11/2019Published in print29/11/2019 License:© 2019 The Author(s)Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved. Citations and impact Subjectsbehaviourcognition Large datasets are available through Biology Letters' partnership with Dryad

The role of item size on choosing contrasted food quantities in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare)

Comparative studies on quantity discrimination in animals are important for understanding potential evolutionary roots of numerical competence. A previous study with angelfish has shown that they discriminate numerically different sets of same-sized food items and prefer the larger set. However, variables that covary with number were not controlled and choice could have been influenced by variables such as size or density of the food items rather than numerical attributes. Here using a recently developed approach, we examined whether contour length of the food items affects choice in a spontaneous binary choice task. In Experiment 1, a contrast of 1 vs. 1 food item was presented, but the ratio between the size (diameter) of the food items was varied. In Experiment 2, numerically different food sets were equated in overall size by increasing the size (diameter) of the items in the numerically small sets. In both Experiments, subjects showed a preference for the larger sized food items with a discrimination limit. These results show that item size plays a prominent role in foraging decisions in angelfish. Experiment 3 placed numerical and size attributes of the sets in conflict by presenting one larger-sized food item in the numerically smaller set that also had smaller overall size (diameter) of food items. Angelfish showed no preference in any of the contrasts, suggesting that they could not make optimal foraging decisions when these attributes were in conflict. Maximization of energy return is central to optimal foraging. Accordingly, here item size was also found to be a key feature of the sets, although the numerical attributes of the sets also influenced the choice.

One-to-one correspondence without language.

A logical rule important in counting and representing exact number is one-to-one correspondence, the understanding that two sets are equal if each item in one set corresponds to exactly one item in the second set. The role of this rule in children's development of counting remains unclear, possibly due to individual differences in the development of language. We report that non-human primates, which do not have language, have at least a partial understanding of this principle. Baboons were given a quantity discrimination task where two caches were baited with different quantities of food. When the quantities were baited in a manner that highlighted the one-to-one relation between those quantities, baboons performed significantly better than when one-to-one correspondence cues were not provided. The implication is that one-to-one correspondence, which requires intuitions about equality and is a possible building block of counting, has a pre-linguistic origin.

Surpassing the subitizing threshold: appetitive-aversive conditioning improves discrimination of numerosities in honeybees.

Animals including humans, fish and honeybees have demonstrated a quantity discrimination threshold at four objects, often known as subitizing elements. Discrimination between numerosities at or above the subitizing range is considered a complex capacity. In the current study, we trained and tested two groups of bees on their ability to differentiate between quantities (4 versus 5 through to 4 versus 8) when trained with different conditioning procedures. Bees trained with appetitive (reward) differential conditioning demonstrated no significant learning of this task, and limited discrimination above the subitizing range. In contrast, bees trained using appetitive-aversive (reward-aversion) differential conditioning demonstrated significant learning and subsequent discrimination of all tested comparisons from 4 versus 5 to 4 versus 8. Our results show conditioning procedure is vital to performance on numerically challenging tasks, and may inform future research on numerical abilities in other animals.

Spontaneous quantity discrimination in crickets

AbstractRecent studies have reported that the ability to discriminate among quantities is not a prerogative of vertebrates. Ants, bees, and spiders can solve tasks in which they are required to discriminate between groups of objects. Although many studies regarding numerical cognition on invertebrates proposed a proto‐counting system, more control experiments for non‐numerical variables are necessary to confirm this hypothesis. Here, we developed a new method to investigate quantity discrimination abilities in invertebrates. We investigated the spontaneous choice of a cricket, Acheta domesticus. We exploited its natural shelter‐seeking behavior by presenting sets of geometrical shapes that simulated potential shelters. In a dichotomous choice between sets of geometrical black shapes differing in number of items, the majority of crickets chose the set containing the larger numerosity up to 2 versus 3 items. Control experiments suggested that crickets discriminated between sets consisting of different numbers of items by attending to continuous variables (i.e., convex hull and cumulative surface area) rather than by attending to numerosity. Secondly, when discriminating between single geometrical shapes, crickets attend to the width but not to the height of the stimuli.

Quantity discrimination in Port Jackson sharks incubated under elevated temperatures

Ocean warming can induce physiological and behavioural effects in marine predators that can cascade through ecosystems. A lack of understanding of the effects of elevated temperature on shark behaviour remains an impediment to forecasting ecosystem-wide impacts. Port Jackson shark eggs were incubated and reared at current and projected end-of-century temperatures (+ 3 °C). We tested juvenile’s learning ability with a quantity discrimination task. The mortality rate of sharks reared in warm water was 41.7% compared with no mortality in the present-day sharks. Contrary to expectations, our results suggest that surviving hatchlings from the elevated-temperature group took fewer days to reach learning criterion and had a higher proportion of correct choice compared with hatchlings reared under present conditions. Additionally, this is the first data suggesting that sharks can discriminate different quantities. Our results seem to indicate that learning and behaviour might play a role in allowing elasmobranchs to overcome some of the deleterious effects of climate warming, but further research is needed to fully comprehend these findings. The world’s oceans are warming at an unprecedented rate, which will impair development and alter physiological and behavioural traits in marine predators. Learning may play a leading role in allowing apex and mesopredators to adapt to a rapidly changing environment; however, no studies have tested the impacts of ocean warming in their learning abilities. We incubated and reared Port Jackson shark eggs at current and projected end-of-century temperatures (+ 3 °C). Contrary to expectations, surviving juveniles from the elevated-temperature group showed better learning performance, potentially adding learning ability to a growing list of traits that incubation temperature can modify during early development in marine predators. Our results were not entirely negative; it is possible that increased learning performance might allow apex and mesopredators to increase foraging efficiency and match increased energetic demands caused by elevated temperature.

Effects of breed group and development on dogs' willingness to follow a human misleading advice.

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of dog breed groups, i.e., primitive, hunting/herding and Mastiff like (Study 1) and development, i.e., 4-month-old puppies vs adults (Study 2) on a quantity discrimination task. The task consisted of three conditions: C1-dogs were asked to choose between a large and a small amount of food; C2-the same choice was presented and dogs could choose after having witnessed the experimenter favouring the small quantity. C3-similar to C2 but the plates had two equally small food quantities. Study 1 revealed that dogs in the hunting/herding group were significantly more likely than Mastiff-like group to choose the small quantity indicated by the person over the large one, although all dog groups chose the large quantity over the small when they had a free choice. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that hunting/herding breeds have been selected for working in cooperation with humans and thus may be more sensitive to human social communicative cues than other breeds. In Study 2, results showed that 4-month-old puppies performed at chance level in C1, whereas in C2 both adults and puppies conformed to the experimenter's choice. In C3, adults followed the experimenter significantly more than puppies, although puppies still followed the experimenter above chance. Overall, domestic dogs seem to rely heavily on social communicative cues from humans, even when the information contradicts their own perception. This tendency to respond to human social cues is present, although at a lesser extent already at 4months.

Does opportunistic testing bias cognitive performance in primates? Learning from drop-outs.

Dropouts are a common issue in cognitive tests with non-human primates. One main reason for dropouts is that researchers often face a trade-off between obtaining a sufficiently large sample size and logistic restrictions, such as limited access to testing facilities. The commonly-used opportunistic testing approach deals with this trade-off by only testing those individuals who readily participate and complete the cognitive tasks within a given time frame. All other individuals are excluded from further testing and data analysis. However, it is unknown if this approach merely excludes subjects who are not consistently motivated to participate, or if these dropouts systematically differ in cognitive ability. If the latter holds, the selection bias resulting from opportunistic testing would systematically affect performance scores and thus comparisons between individuals and species. We assessed the potential effects of opportunistic testing on cognitive performance in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) with a test battery consisting of six cognitive tests: two inhibition tasks (Detour Reaching and A-not-B), one cognitive flexibility task (Reversal Learning), one quantity discrimination task, and two memory tasks. Importantly, we used a full testing approach in which subjects were given as much time as they required to complete each task. For each task, we then compared the performance of subjects who completed the task within the expected number of testing days with those subjects who needed more testing time. We found that the two groups did not differ in task performance, and therefore opportunistic testing would have been justified without risking biased results. If our findings generalise to other species, maximising sample sizes by only testing consistently motivated subjects will be a valid alternative whenever full testing is not feasible.

الدقّة التشخيصيّة لقياسات الاستعداد العددي المبكّر القائمة على المنهاج في فرز تلاميذ الصفّ الأوّل المعرضين للفشل في الرياضيّات

This study aims to examine the accuracy of three Early Numeracy Curriculum-Based Measurements (EN-CBMs). The measures were designed to assess three different skills of number knowledge, including number identification (NI), missing number (MN), and quantity discrimination (QD). The measures were applied to a sample comprising 149 first-grade students from Sharqia South Governorate. The results showed that the EN-CBMs have good internal consistency as indicated by Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients ranging between 0.81 and 0.97. In addition, the measures showed good alternate forms reliability as indicated by correlations coefficients ranging between 0.72 and 0.97. The validity of the measures was assessed by both content and face validity. Content validity was based on the use of specification tables. Face validity exhibited 100% approval by a panel of experts. Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (ROC) analysis was used to examine the diagnostic accuracy of the EN-CBMs, using the Learning Disabilities Diagnostic Inventory (LDDI) as the outcome measure. Sensitivity values ranged from 0.80 to 0.91, specificity ranged from 0.65 to 0.70, Positive Predictive Value (PPV) ranged from 0.47 to 0.57, Negative Predictive Value (NPV) ranged from 0.89 to 0.91, and diagnostic accuracy ranged from 0.69 to 0.74. Overall, results showed that EN-CBM can predict can screen for students at risk for failure in mathematics.

Continuous and discrete quantity discrimination in tortoises.

The ability to estimate quantity, which is crucially important in several aspects of animal behaviour (e.g. foraging), has been extensively investigated in most taxa, with the exception of reptiles. The few studies available, in lizards, report lack of spontaneous discrimination of quantity, which may suggest that reptiles could represent an exception in numerical abilities among vertebrates. We investigated the spontaneous ability of Hermann's tortoises ( Testudo hermanni) to select the larger quantity of food items. Tortoises were able to choose the larger food item when exposed to two options differing in size, but equal in numerousness (0.25, 0.50, 0.67 and 0.75 ratio) and when presented with two groups differing in numerousness, but equal in size (1 versus 4, 2 versus 4, 2 versus 3 and 3 versus 4 items). The tortoises succeeded in both size and numerousness discrimination, and their performance appeared to depend on the ratio of items to be discriminated (thus following Weber's Law). These findings in chelonians provide evidence of an ancient system for the extrapolation of numerical magnitudes from given sets of elements, shared among vertebrates.

Quantity discrimination in fish species: fish use non-numerical continuous quantity traits to select shoals.

Fish typically prefer to live in big shoals due to the associated ecological benefits. Shoaling is a behavior that depends on the ability to quantitatively discriminate. The fundamental mechanism involved in quantity discrimination determines whether fish can discriminate a shoal using numerical discrete cues (e.g., number of shoal members), non-numerical continuous traits (e.g., total body surface area) or both; however, the mechanism is currently a controversial topic. In the present study, we used a spontaneous choice experiment to test whether guppy (Poecilia reticulata), zebrafish (Danio rerio), Chinese crucian carp (Carassius auratus) and qingbo (Spinibarbus sinensis) rely on continuous (i.e., body surface area) or discrete (i.e., number of shoal members) information for shoal selection by altering the body surface area (cumulative body surface area ratio of 3:2 or 1:1) between two stimulus shoals with a different number of members (2 individuals vs 3 individuals). All four fish species preferred to shoal with the stimulus shoal with the larger cumulative surface area even if the shoal had fewer members; however, fish showed no shoal preference when the cumulative surface body areas of both stimulus shoals were equal. Furthermore, qingbo did not numerically discriminate between a shoal with 1 individual and a shoal with 3 individuals when the cumulative surface areas of both stimulus shoals were equal; however, qingbo showed a preference for the shoal with the larger cumulative surface area when the two stimulus shoals each had 3 individuals. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that all four fish species relied only on non-numerical continuous quantity information for shoal selection, at least under a difficult task (i.e., 2 vs 3).

Quantity discrimination in angelfish, Pterophyllum scalare: a novel approach with food as the discriminant

The ability to distinguish between different quantities of items is fundamental in many ecological contexts, and it has been shown in different animal species. This ability may also be context specific. Quantity estimation in fish has mainly been analysed in the context of social behaviour, whereas a majority of studies conducted with species other than fish tested it in the context of foraging. Surprisingly, little is known about the capacity of fish to discriminate between food quantities, possibly because of difficulties in testing individual fish in a novel, and thus aversive, test environment. Here, we present a novel approach that allowed us to test single angelfish, Pterophyllum scalare, while minimizing isolation-related stress. In binary choice tests, sets composed of similarly sized discrete food items differing in numerical size were presented and the spontaneous (untrained) choice of angelfish was investigated. In all contrasts tested in three experiments, angelfish preferred the numerically larger to the smaller food set. The performance of the fish was ratio dependent in the small but not in the large number range (more than four food items, contrasts that were investigated for the first time in fishes), and there was no significant difference in the magnitude of preference for the small versus the large values. However, overall results indicated that the response was ratio dependent, with an increase in accuracy as the numerical ratio between the contrasts increased. Furthermore, the same numerical ratios that were successfully discriminated with small quantities were also similarly discriminated with large quantities. Altogether, our results thus imply that angelfish utilize the approximate number system of quantity representation for the entire numerical range tested, and that their response is an attempt to maximize foraging success.

Spatial representation of magnitude in humans (Homo sapiens), Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and American black bears (Ursus americanus).

The spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect is the tendency for humans to respond faster to relatively larger numbers on the left or right (or with the left or right hand) and faster to relatively smaller numbers on the other side. This effect seems to occur due to a spatial representation of magnitude either in occurrence with a number line (wherein participants respond to relatively larger numbers faster on the right), other representations such as clock faces (responses are reversed from number lines), or culturally specific reading directions, begging the question as to whether the effect may be limited to humans. Given that a SNARC effect has emerged via a quantity judgement task in Western lowland gorillas and orangutans (Gazes et al., Cog 168:312-319, 2017), we examined patterns of response on a quantity discrimination task in American black bears, Western lowland gorillas, and humans for evidence of a SNARC effect. We found limited evidence for SNARC effect in American black bears and Western lowland gorillas. Furthermore, humans were inconsistent in direction and strength of effects, emphasizing the importance of standardizing methodology and analyses when comparing SNARC effects between species. These data reveal the importance of collecting data with humans in analogous procedures when testing nonhumans for effects assumed to bepresent in humans.