Amount Of Limestone Research Articles

Lateral Water Encroachment In the Pincher Creek Field

Abstract Unusual water production performance has occurred in a portion of the Pincher Creek Gas Field. This fingering or ‘lateral water encroachment’ from the downdip aquifer has been insufficient to significantly affect pressure performance, but has severely restricted the productivity of some wells and will reduce the recovery of gas in place. Water encroached into one structurally high drilling spacing unit even before the well was drilled and placed on production. The mechanics of this water movement have been confirmed during two reconditioning operations and by the production performance of wells. It has been found that a watered-out well can be made to produce water-free gas by recompleting LOWER in the same continuously porous interval. Relief from water production after reconditioning may be short-lived. The various factors to which water fingering could be attributed have been examined and are discussed. Lithofacies studies indicate two ‘shoals’ which form one continuous gas reservoir. Premature water encroachment at individual wells could be related to interfingering of rock types and lack of vertical permeability. This water encroachment phenomenon could be effective to varying degrees in other deep, fractured reservoirs in Alberta. INTRODUCTION The Pincher Creek Rundle Gas Pool, located in the extreme southwestern corner of Alberta, as shown on Fig.1, was discovered at a depth of 11,700 feet by the drilling of Pincher Creek No.1 in 1947. Subsequent drilling resulted in twenty-four gas wells and three dry holes. Figure 2 is a structure map which shows the locations of the wells. Commencing early in 1957, the pool was cycled at a raw gas rate of 60 MMcf/D for two years to recover sulphur and condensate. In late 1958, gas sales to Trans-Canada commenced. Water production problems have adversely affected the deliverabilities of wells in the northern half of the field, some occurring very early in the blowdown operation. The primary purpose of this paper is to discuss the unusual water production performance and remedial measures. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS Geology The Pincher Creek sour gas – condensate reservoir consists of a fractured thrust block of Rundle strata striking N3 °W and dipping 4 to 8 degrees to the southwest. The areal extent of the pool is determined by the down-dip aquifer on the west and by faults that bound the eastern edge of the structure, as shown schematically on Figure 4. Two wells appear to have encountered separate fault blocks which are in pressure communication with the main reservoir. The productive portion of the Rundle can be subdivided into five zones, the Upper Dense, Upper Porous. Middle Hard, Crystalline and Lower Porous, each differing in lithology, thickness, porosity and permeability. The five zones form a continuously porous reservoir which is normally 550 feet thick when the entire section is above water and not faulted. In general, the lithology of the pay section is one of dolomite above the Crystalline Zone and of variable amounts of limestone and dolomite through the remainder.

Nature of Cretaceous Sedimentation in Western Desert, Egypt

The Cretaceous System in the Western Desert of Egypt has several sedimentary and tectonic features that are not observed in the underlying formations. Throughout Cretaceous time, changes in the tectonic pattern, depositional environment, and sediment types indicate different magnitudes of tectonic instability. From the available surface and subsurface data, 22 stratigraphic maps were constructed to show thickness variations, facies changes, and paleogeology of Early Cretaceous, Cenomanian, Turonian, and Senonian times. The Lower Cretaceous sequence is a thick fluviatile-marine to marine sequence of carbonaceous sandstone with intercalations of carbonaceous shale and a small amount of limestone. Two maximum thickness trends are present. Maximum thickness is about 3,100 m. A deeply weathered, high Basement Complex massif east of the desert, extended to the present Nile Valley. The configuration of this massif affected the nature and type of sediments that were deposited. As the sea transgressed southward, the sites of maximum Cretaceous deposition were changed. During Cenomanian time, the principal basin was at the center of the Western Desert; maximum thickness is about 900 m. The Cenomanian is marine and continental, and consists of sandstone and shale in the south, and limestone both at the rim of the basin and in the north. A partly restricted environment probably dominated; in the Baharia Oasis area, a prodelta environment is inferred to have existed. At least two stages of tectonic uplift took place in some localities (e.g., the Baharia Oasis area) during the Cenomanian. At the end of Cenomanian time, the basin was broken up, and Turonian sediments are present mainly in two basins. Open-marine conditions prevailed in both basins where a maximum thickness of 800 m was deposited. The section contains abundant carbonate, which is extensive laterally and vertically. Conspicuous uplift took place in some areas during and at the end of the Turonian. During Senonian time, the Western Desert area was the site of another open-marine transgression. A semi-restricted environment probably existed in the south, where the maximum thickness was deposited. Lithologically, the Senonian shows normal facies changes; sandstone and claystone are present on the south and limestone on the north. Subaerial and submarine highs were present, particularly near the middle of the Western Desert area. The high Basement Complex massif that existed during the Early Cretaceous was reduced in size during the Cenomanian-Senonian period. After Senonian time, the massif was not exposed, except for some islands. The Cretaceous rocks are good petroleum reservoirs. Cenomanian and Lower Cretaceous strata possibly were favorable source rocks. Economic deposits of oolitic iron ore and phosphorite accumulated in semirestricted depositional environments near the Senonian shoreline.

Major Upper Triassic Lithogenetic Sequences in Colorado Plateau Region

Three major lithogenetic sequences of regional extent are recognized in the Upper Triassic Series of the Colorado Plateau region. The sequences, which correspond only partly with named formations, are useful in describing the gross lithologic character and the origin of the Upper Triassic Series. The lowest of the three, the bentonitic sequence, consists of variegated bentonitic claystone and clayey sandstone and thin widespread sandstone and conglomerate units. The sediment in the sequence was derived predominantly from a volcanic source area south of the Colorado Plateau, the Mogollon highland, and was deposited in streams, on floodplains, and in lakes. The overlying redbed sequence consists of reddish-brown or reddish-orange, horizontally stratified siltstone and minor amounts of limestone and sandstone. The sediments were predominantly quiet-water deposits, probably lacustrine, derived from several source areas, the most important of which may have been the Uncompahgre and Front Range highlands of Colorado. The next overlying sequence consists of light-brown, fine- to medium-grained, conspicuously cross-stratified sandstone. It is considered to be of eolian origin; the sediment probably was derived from reworking of upwind arenaceous sedimentary units on the northwest.

Geology and Exploration of Three Bass Strait Basins, Australia

Three major Mesozoic-Tertiary basins adjoin in east-west alignment along the eastern third of the south coast of Australia, for a distance of about 700 miles. The total area embraced by the three basins is about 100,000 square miles, and it includes part of three of Australia's six states. Three-fourths of the area is offshore shelf. The general east-west alignment of the basins resulted from sharp taphrogenic breakdown across the generally north-south Paleozoic orogenic trend of eastern Australia and Tasmania. The main faults and many of the basin features tend to have northeasterly or northwesterly trends, suggesting that rotational or transcurrent stresses were involved in the breakup and subsidence. Sedimentation began at least as early as the Late Jurassic. The Mesozoic is an estuarine to marine, poor- to well-sorted terrigenous clastic series. The Tertiary is largely marine and is more uniformly developed throughout. The lower third of the Tertiary contains extensive, generally highly porous and permeable coastal sandstone beds together with some shale and varying amounts of coal and carbonaceous beds. The middle beds consist mainly of shale. The upper third or more has a considerable amount of limestone and marl. Several unconformities are recognized. Though not all sediments bear marine fossils, the contained waters are saline beyond the limits of the rather extensive fresh-water flushing onshore. The Gippsland or eastern basin includes approximately 20,000 square miles. At least 10,000 feet of rapidly deposited Upper Jurassic-Cretaceous terrigenous clastics fills a down-faulted central trough and overlaps the basin shelves on the north and south; and about 9,000 feet of more widely extending Tertiary sandstone, shale, marl, and limestone comprises the remainder of the basin fill. The deeply silled Bass basin separates the island State of Tasmania from the mainland. It occupies an area of 35,000 square miles. The section consists of 12,000 feet or more of sandstone, shale, marl, and limestone, together with some coal, of Eocene and earlier ages. Deposition began in the central part of the basin, probably at least as early as Late Cretaceous time, and it continued throughout the Tertiary. The deposition progressively overlapped toward all flanks. The western, or Otway, basin includes an area of about 45,000 square miles. In this basin, the Mesozoic consists of sandstone, shale, siltstone, and mudstone. Deposition began during the latter part of Jurassic time and it continued, except for recognizable intervals of non-deposition, into the Paleocene. The maximum thickness exceeds 15,000 feet. A maximum of about 8,000 feet of overlapping Tertiary sandstone, shale, marl, and limestone completes the basin fill. Potential petroleum traps of the following types occur: tectonic folds; fault or fault-block structures; massive, elongate sandstone bodies associated with pronounced transgressive overlap, shale interfingering, and compaction drape; porosity abutment both above and below extensive low-angle unconformities; unconformable overlap by basin-sink sediments across broad-bottom highs and against and over major fault scarps; structural noses; extensive progressive flank overlap around a deeply silled basin by a sandstone, shale, marl, and limestone section; and porosity pinchouts. Since the mid-1920s, 130 exploratory borings have been drilled onshore in the extensively freshwater-flushed basin flanks. Numerous non-commercial oil and gas shows were logged. In 1965 and 1966, five exploratory wells were drilled offshore, up to the April, 1966, date of this paper. Three of these were located on well-defined closure in the Gippsland basin and resulted in major wet gas and oil discoveries in Eocene and Upper Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs. Prior to farmout of each of the three basins, successively from east to west, 18,000 miles of aerial magnetic and 5,320 miles of conventional seismic surveys were carried out under the direction and assistance of the writers. Comprehensive basin studies and compilations completed the preliminary investigations. Not included in the foregoing are various geophysical surveys on a much smaller scale by other companies and government agencies. Also not included are many hundreds of miles of additional shooting by the farmee preparatory to drilling.

Physical Techniques of Correlation Applied to Upper Ordovician Rocks of Southeastern Indiana: ABSTRACT

For more than 60 years, formations of Late Ordovician age in southeastern Indiana have been identified on the basis of the contained fossils. Unpredictable variability of the rocks has been given as the reason that lithologic criteria were not used. It is true that individual beds are not persistent laterally, but groups of beds can be traced by using electric and other geophysical logs, quantitative insoluble-residue logs, and End_Page 615------------------------------ lithologic-summary logs compiled from detailed measured sections. These techniques have the common advantage of objective automatic generalization, so that meaningless details are minimized and important lithologic trends can be seen. Many of the systematic variations in rock content thus revealed can be traced with confidence across the outcrop and into the subsurface. Shale comprises about 80 per cent of this 900-foot-thick body of rocks; limestone of several distinctive types makes up the remainder. Formations recognized include, in ascending order, the Lexington Limestone of recent Kentucky usage and the Kope, Dillsboro, Saluda, and Whitewater Formations. The recently defined Tanners Creek Formation can not be distinguished on a strictly lithologic basis, and it is therefore included in the Dillsboro. The Lexington and the Saluda are dominantly carbonate units; the Dillsboro and Whitewater are principally shale but include significant quantities of limestone; and the Kope is almost entirely shale. The boundaries of these formations can be rather closely identified on the several types of logs mentioned above, and refinements usually are possible here original detailed data are available. Intermediate beds and horizons also can be identified and traced for considerable distances. In dealing with apparently disorganized rock sequences of this type, it is essential to utilize or devise techniques to elicit generalizations from the confusing maze of data. End_of_Article - Last_Page 616------------

Fixação do nitrogênio do ar pelas bactérias que vivem associadas às raízes do feijão de porco e do feijão baiano

Foi objetivo dêste trabalho a determinação da quantidade de nitrogênio do ar fixada pelas bactérias que vivem associadas às raízes das leguminosas feijão de porco (Canuvalia ensiformis D. C.) e feijão baiano (Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi). A experiência foi conduzida em vasos de Mirscherlich, utilizando-se terra-roxa-misturada, proveniente da Estação Experimental Central do Instituto Agronômico, Campinas, e retirada à profundidade de 0-20 cm. Por ocasião do florescimento das plantas procedeu-se à colheita do material e documentou-se por fotografias o desenvolvimento e a nodulação das raízes em todos os tratamentos. No final do ensaio determinou-se o teor de nitrogênio da terra dos vasos que não receberam adubação nitrogenado, para comparação com o teor inicial desse elemento no solo utilizado. Idêntica determinação foi feita com a parte aérea e as raízes das plantas, depois de secas em estufa a 60° C e pesadas. Com base nos dados obtidos calculou-se que os máximos de fixação verificados com o feijão de porco e o feijão baiano correspondem, respectivamente, a 48,5 e 73,0 kg de nitrogênio por hectare. Tais resultados indicam que, deste ponto de vista, as duas leguminosas apresentam característica positiva para a sua indicação como adubos verdes.

Morrowan Series of North Texas Panhandle: ABSTRACT

Morrowan sediments are recognized in the subsurface over most of the northern Texas panhandle. Morrowan terminology is based primarily on lithology and stratigraphic sequence with some faunal identification. The rocks are predominantly shales with less amounts of limestones and sandstones. The sandstones are of prime economic importance in the production of oil and gas distillate, and account for a greater part of the recent discoveries in the panhandle. End_of_Article - Last_Page 215------------

Soil Reactions at Various Depths as Influenced by Time Since Application and Amounts of Limestone

AbstractLimestone at 2, 4, 8, and 16 tons on the surface of grassland in 1930, increased the pH to depths of 6, 12, 15, and 24 inches, respectively, by 1939. By 1953, the pH had increased to depths of 8, 10, 24, and 30 inches, respectively. The soil was a fine sandy loam, with 50% clay plus silt and had not been tilled since about 1895.The results 2 years after adding the limestone show that even the unusually high rates of limestone had not affected the pH values of the soil nearly as deeply as had much less limestone after longer lapses of time.The surface inch of soil had increased in acidity again 5 years after liming in the 1‐, 2‐, and 4‐ton plots, and 9 years after liming in the 8‐ and 16‐ton plots.The lime requirement and exchangeable base determinations corroborate the pH data.The results clearly show that it is possible to decrease the acidity of soils to depths far below where liming materials are actually placed. For a given soil and climate, rates and final depths of such penetrative effects depend on the amount of lime applied and on the lapse of time.

Postglacial Weathering of Mankato till in Manitoba

The effect of environment and composition of sediments on the weathering of Mankato till in certain regions in Manitoba was studied. Analyses of the major horizons of ten profiles included mechanical analysis, lithology of coarse sediments, mineral analysis of fine sand, composition of clay fractions, pH values, and chemical analysis. The rate of weathering in sediments of similar initial composition increased from grassland to forest environments. Sediments in a similar environment, but with different quantities of lime carbonate, showed a decrease in weathering with increasing amounts of limestone. There was no significant alteration of the clay fractions, since approximately equal percentages of the predominant mineral types were present in all horizons. Weathering of noncalcareous rocks and minerals (except shale) in till soils occurring in Manitoba was comparatively slight.

The variations in limestone and flint grit consumptions by laying birds

AbstractAn experiment has been performed to find the quantities of limestone and flint grit consumed (a) by different birds, (6) on different days and (c) between two‐hourly periods within the day. The influence of two different feeding regimes was also considered. It was found that with limestone grit there were differences between birds and also differences between days, but with flint grit there were no such differences. It was possible to show that the need for calcium created by shell deposition did not cause a greater consumption of limestone grit in any one period directly related to a specific time of shell formation nor over the whole period of shell formation. The period of greatest consumption of limestone grit was always immediately before dusk. Most flint grit was also consumed at this time. Grit balances and an examination of the contents of the alimentary tract showed that there was a very great wastage of both limestone and flint grit but that the amount of limestone dissolved was probably adequate for the needs of the bird.

Título en español.

La cantidad de cal necesaria para subir el pH de varios suelos ácidos de Puerto Rico hasta 6.5 fluctúa entre varios cientos y varios miles de libras. Para investigar la relación entre el mineral predominante en la fracción arcillosa del suelo, el contenido de arcilla, la capacidad de intercambio, el contenido de materia orgánica, el valor pH y la cantidad de cal requerida, fuéque se determinaron estos factores en el laboratorio. Se obtuvo una regresión altamente significativa entre cal requerida y pH que se puede expresar por la ecuación: Y = 18.39 — 3.196 X, donde Y es la cal requerida y X es el valor pH. No hubo un aumento significativo en la variabilidad explicada por la regresión al incluir otros factores. Los datos se agruparon, luego, de acuerdo con el mineral predominante en la fracción arcillosa. Para suelos donde predomina el caolín se encontraron correlaciones altamente significativas entre cal requerida y pH, y entre cal requerida y capacidad de intercambio. Las regresiones se pueden expresar así: (a) Y = 15.26 - 2.632 pH, (b) Y = 3.048 + 0.5774 (capacidad de intercambio) donde Y representa la cantidad de cal requerida para subir el pH del suelo a 6.5. Un intento para establecer una correlación entre la cantidad de cal requerida y ambos factores no aumentó significativamente la variabilidad explicada por la regresión sobre la explicada por la segunda ecuación (b). No se obtuvieron regresiones significativas en el caso de los suelos cuya fracción arcillosa estaba dominada por la beidelita.

Soil Acidity at Various Depths as Influenced by Time since Application, Placement, and Amount of Limestone

SummaryOn a series of twenty-six alfalfa plats, limestone was mixed with the plow layer (0–8″) of Charlton fine sandy loam soil at from four to ten tons per acre between 1914 and 1919. In 1937, the soil in these plats was sampled by six-inch layers to a depth of thirty-six inches and the acidity determined by the quinhydrone (pH) and the Jones lime requirement methods. By both methods, the results show that the acidity of all layers has been reduced by all of the limestone treatments excepting the lowest one (four tons per acre). There was a significant correlation between the amount of limestone and reduction in acidity. Regardless of rate of liming, the plow layer was the most acid in 1937. Similar results were obtained with ten plats in two five-year rotations. In 1938, the acidity of each of the upper six inches of soil from permanent pasture plats had been reduced appreciably by limestone applied on the surface at one ton per acre in 1924 and repeated in 1929. For the first time since 1924, the surface inch was more acid than the second inch of soil. Data obtained by testing one-inch samples of soil from many grass plats, limed on the surface, show clearly that the depth and rate of penetration of limestone are functions of amount added and lapse of time since application. On this soil, at least, ten years must elapse after applying limestone at two tons on the surface before all of the upper six inches have a similar reaction. However, it is concluded that surface application is an effective and efficient method of liming grassland.

Soil Reactions at Various Depths as Influenced by Time Since Application, Placement, and Amount of Limestone

SummaryThe results of several experiments show that limestone, either mixed with the plow layer or added to the surface of soils, has reduced appreciably the acidity of lower horizons. At least, in the case of surface applications, the reduction in acidity of the lower layers seems to have been due to continuing disintegration and solubility of the limestone and not to a movement of exchangeable bases to lower levels at the expense of the upper. The soil tests and the increase in yields of grassland show that surface application is a very efficient method of adding limestone to permanent turfs. It is estimated that about 300 pounds of limestone per acre annually, will maintain a given pH in the plow layer of similar soils not receiving physiologically acid fertilizers. The depth and degree to which acidity was reduced in the lower levels of soil were influenced by the amount of limestone and by the lapse of time since its application.

The Influence of Calcium Carbonate in the Feed of Laying Hens, upon Digestion

CHEMICAL analyses of the droppings of hens in an experiment to compare marl and limestone as sources of calcium carbonate for laying hens1 are interesting because they suggest that calcium carbonate in the feed may have a marked effect upon digestion. The experiment was not conducted as a digestion experiment, hence the data obtained are not sufficient for computing digestibility of the nutrients, but the findings are suggestive.In this test, sixteen pullets, housed in an individual-pen laying battery, were fed a mash composed of wheat mixed feed 60, ground yellow corn 20, meat scrap 20 parts, and cod liver oil 1 part. The mash contained protein 21.5, fat 5.10, fiber 5.7, magnesium oxide 0.33, calcium oxide 1.18, andP2 O5 3.6 percent. To this, certain quantities of limestone or marl were added, at stated times, as shown in the following schedule. The limestone and marl were ground to pass a .

XXIII. On the Occurrence of Saccammina Carteri (Brady) in the Limestone Series of the Lanarkshire Coalfield

The organism which forms the subject of the following remarks was found, as far back as the year 1864, while on an excursion in the Carluke district, in company with Messrs. Armstrong and Thomson. On that occasion we were conducted to several interesting fossil-bearing localities by our corresponding member, J. S. Hunter, Esq., of Daleville, Carluke. Amongst the places visited was a recent opening, a short distance to the south-east of Braidwood Railway Station, where a quantity of limestone and light-coloured felspathic trap was exposed. In masses of the limestone we noticed an abundance of small spherical spots of white carbonate of lime embedded in the dark gray matrix, which gave to the stone a peculiar mottled appearance, somewhat like that observed in limestone, in which cross sections of the corals Syringopora and Lithodendron junceum are shown; but as these spheres did not show any apparent organic structure to the naked eye, we concluded at the time that they had probably been superinduced in the limestone by being in contact with the bed of white trap above referred to, and which had indurated the rock to a considerable extent. Shortly after the above-mentioned excursion, I received from Dr. Rankin, Carluke—who is alive to every thing of geological interest that turns up in his district—a small chip of the limestone, with an inquiry if I could say what the spheres of carbonate of lime had been. I was not then able to give him any information beyond the conclusion formerly arrived This 250-word extract was created in the absence of an abstract