Qualitative Behaviour Assessment Research Articles

Does environmental enrichment consisting of brushing prepartum zebu heifers improve first-lactation behavior?

To date, Qualitative Behavior Assessment (QBA) has not been used to measure the welfare of pre-partum Zebu heifers treated with practices of positive handling. The study objective was to investigate the effect of brushing as positive handling on animal behavior in the prepartum period, aside from establishing a qualitative behavior index to assess the animals’ well-being pre- and postpartum periods. Thirty-five Zebu, 21 Gyr and 14 Gyr/Holstein heifers were evaluated. Filming was performed during the prepartum period, and on postpartum day (PPD) 1, 5 and 15. The filmed material was evaluated based on the method of Qualitative Behavior Assessment (QBA). A total of 1942 evaluation sheets with 10 fixed descriptive terms were analyzed. The means of Qualitative Behavior Index (QBI) were compared by the Tukey-Kramer test at 5% probability. On PPD1, training improved the QBI of Gyr and Gyr/Holstein heifers by 93 % and 43 %, respectively. The cumulative sum of the first two components explained 73.32 % of the variability in the datasets. High correlations were observed between the undesirable adjective pairs “nervous - aggressive” and “scared - irritable” (0.88); “confused-fearful” and “scared - irritable” (0.87) and between the desirable adjectives “calm - even-tempered” and” sociable - friendly” (0.78). The use of QBA to measure the welfare of pre- and postpartum Zebu heifers is applicable and efficient. The implementation of a training of prepartum Zebu heifers with environmental enrichment, tactile stimulation by brushing and human presence improved the adaptation of Zebu heifers to the postpartum milking system. We suggest brushing of Gyr heifers in the pre- as well as postpartum phases to improve the well-being of the animals.

Iceberg Indicators for Animal Welfare in Rural Sheep Farms Using the Five Domains Model Approach.

Simple SummaryAnimal welfare is difficult to quantify, especially among farmers, in extensive rural sheep farms where there is a low level of animal interaction and a lack of technology. In this study, we searched for iceberg indicators of animal welfare using the Five Domains Model approach, and studied the relationship among sheep flight distance, sheep handling training and job satisfaction in extensive rural sheep systems. A structured survey was used to obtain socio-demographical, job satisfaction and sheep handling training data. A full animal welfare evaluation was performed on all farms; furthermore, a health status examination was also made in which blood and stool samples were taken. Four iceberg indicators were found with the potential to predict overall animal welfare scores on farms, and one to study state of mind in extensive rural sheep systems, as well as interactions among job satisfaction, training in sheep handling and sheep mind state.Animal welfare for sheep in extensive rural farms is difficult to quantify among rural farmers due to several factors, including the lack of technology and the low level of interaction they have with the animals. The purpose of this study was to search for animal-based iceberg indicators using the Five Domains Model approach and study the relationship between sheep reactive behavior (flight distance), sheep handling training and farmers job satisfaction. Thirteen extensive commercial dual-purpose sheep farms (n = 520 animals) were evaluated in Marulanda, Caldas (Colombia, South America). On-farm Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) were assessed using an adapted version of this protocol. Socio-demographic characteristics, sheep handling training and job satisfaction were evaluated using a structured interview. Blood and stool samples were taken to determine Fecal Egg Count and Packed Cell Volume. Bivariate regression models were used to find animal-based indicators that predicted Nutrition, Ambience, Health and Behavior welfare domains, and a Qualitative Behavior Analysis was used for mind state domain analysis. Body condition score (BCS) (p = 0.001), fleece cleanliness (p = 0.03), FAMACHA© Score (p = 0.05), and flight distance in meters (p = 0.19) were found to be indicators, and were useful for predicting overall welfare assessment (R2 = 0.85) on theses farms. Regarding mind welfare domain, Qualitative Behavioral Assessment found two principal components (PC) that explained 82% and 67% of the variance, and described emotional valence and energy levels of sheep, respectively. Sheep handling training (β = −8.75, p = 0.004) and job satisfaction (β = −7.5, p = 0.013) had a negative association with the average flock flight distance. Spearman’s rank correlations were significant (p < 0.001) between Fecal Egg Count, Packed Cell Volume, FAMACHA© Score (FS), Body Weight (BW) and, BCS. The strongest association was observed between Packed Cell Volume (PCV) and Fecal Egg Count (FEC) (r = −0.43), also FS was correlated with PCV (r = −0.28) and FEC (r = 0.21), and BCS was correlated with weight (r = 0.32). We suggest that these animal-based indicators could be useful as iceberg indicators for extensive sheep production systems and may set the ground for more research in small extensive sheep farms to develop strategies to find welfare problems and solutions.

Assessment of welfare indicators in grazing dairy cows in Northeast Brazil

The welfare of dairy cows is a major global concern, due to its impact on cow health and productivity, as well as public health. The aim of this study was to identify the main problems related to welfare in dairy herds managed on pasture in the state of Paraíba, Brazil. For this investigation, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 12 dairy farms in the municipalities of Areia, Alagoa Grande, Serraria, and Pilões, Paraíba, Brazil. Each farm was visited only once, recording the number of cows in the herd, type and number of milkings per day, daily milk yield, and access time to the pasture. Body condition score, cleanliness score, bodily injuries, and qualitative behavioral assessment (QBA) were measured. A total of 335 dairy cows were evaluated; herds ranged from 14 to 43 lactating cows, with an average milk yield of 8.4 ± 3.25 kg day-1. Of the 335 cows observed, 26% had a low body condition score, 82% had bodily injuries, and 20% had dirt on their legs. For the QBA, a principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that PC1 had a high correlation mainly with positive body expressions (e.g., sociable, active, and happy), and PC2 was associated with negative terms of body expression (e.g., apathetic, frustrated, and fearful). In conclusion, evaluating indicators of cows’ body condition, bodily injury, and cleanliness highlighted the importance of promoting improvements in pasture, management, and housing conditions to enable better performance, health, and welfare of the animals.

Dolphin Welfare Assessment under Professional Care: ‘Willingness to Participate’, an Indicator Significantly Associated with Six Potential ‘Alerting Factors’

In dolphinaria, dolphins and their trainers build relationships and bonds due to the nature, closeness and repeatability of their interactions, hence training sessions are deemed appropriate to evaluate dolphin welfare. Qualitative Behavioural Assessments (QBAs) have been used to study human–animal relationships and are included in several animal welfare assessments. We introduce here the first QBA aiming to analyse dolphin–trainer interactions during training sessions in terms of dolphin welfare. Our results show that “Willingness to Participate” (WtP) was significantly associated to six other parameters: high-speed approach, high level of excitement, high number of positive responses to trainers’ signals, rare refusal to perform certain behaviours, rare spontaneous departure behaviours and fast approach once the trainer entered into the pool. Therefore, we suggest using WtP and those “alerting factors” when assessing dolphin–trainer interactions under professional care. The evaluation should also consider the time of day, the dolphin’s age, trainer experience level, the nature of the training sessions and to a lesser extent the sex of the dolphins, as contributing and modulating factors. The factor eye contact has been used in various HARs studies and has been proven to be a valid indicator in welfare research works, hence potentially deserving further research. These results demonstrate the pertinence and feasibility of this approach, the ease of use of this methodology by professionals in zoo/aquarium settings and the appropriateness of the obtained results within the holistic frame of animal welfare.

Qualitative behavioural assessment of pain in castrated lambs

This study investigates for the first time the application of Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) to the analysis of acute pain expression in castrated lambs. Eighty 2-day-old male lambs were allocated to one of 4 groups (n = 20 per treatment): handled only (control, C), rubber ring castration (RR), short-scrotum castration (SSC) and rubber ring castration combined with Burdizzo (COM). Ethogram-based lamb behaviours and postures were recorded continuously from video for 30 min after application of castration rings or handling, and Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests were used to investigate differences between treatment groups. For QBA assessment a 2-minute video clip was extracted from the 30 min footage for each lamb, starting 15 min after treatment. Ten observers, blind to the castration treatment, provided QBA of the 80 clips, using Free Choice Profiling methodology. Data were analysed using Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Results show that for the 30 min. after castration or handling RR and SSC lambs had a higher frequency of active pain behaviour (RR = 110.5, SSC = 97.0, COM = 25.0, C = 24.0; p < 0.001) and restlessness (RR = 33.0, SSC = 22.0, COM = 10.0, C = 9.5; p < 0.001), than COM and C lambs. QBA identified two main dimensions of lamb expression: ‘calm/comfortable - restless/painful’ (44.8 % of variance), and ‘curious/active - tired/lethargic’ (35.8 %), with both dimensions showing significant effects of treatment (dimension1: F2,78 = 13.12, p = 0.001; dimension2: F2,78 = 24.26, p = 0.001). Post-hoc analysis showed RR lambs were perceived as significantly more restless/painful than COM, C and SSC lambs (T=-6.213, P = 0.001; T=-3.805, P = 0.001; T=-3.458, P = 0.005, respectively), and SSC lambs as more restless/painful than COM lambs (T = -2.8, P = 0.03) but not C lambs. In addition RR, COM, and SSC lambs were perceived as more tired/lethargic than C lambs (T=-7.535, P = 0.001; T=-7.01, P = 0.001; T=-5.904, P = 0.001, respectively). In sum, QBA was able to distinguish between four castration techniques through the characterisation of expressive lamb demeanour, with RR castration identified as the most painful of the tested methods. It also characterised COM lambs as more tired/lethargic than Control lambs, where quantitative behaviour measures discerned no difference between the two groups. QBA thus emerges as a promising indicator for the assessment of pain and welfare in castrated lambs.

Fecal Cortisol Metabolites in Dairy Cows: A Cross-Sectional Exploration of Associations with Animal, Stockperson, and Farm Characteristics.

Simple SummaryDairy cows are exposed to various potentially stressful situations in the daily farm routine, which might considerably impair their welfare and performance. On 25 German organic dairy farms, we explored associations of cows’ physiological stress levels by means of cortisol metabolite concentrations in feces (1) with different potentially influencing farm factors including human–animal contact, (2) cows’ fear behaviors towards humans, and (3) milk production and udder health. Cortisol metabolite levels were decreased on farms that did not separate diseased cows, possibly reflecting less regrouping stress. Levels were also lower on farms with straw yards compared to raised cubicles, and on farms with generous compared to suboptimal lying space, underlining the importance of resting comfort for cattle. Increased human–animal contact was associated with decreased cortisol metabolite levels. However, against expectations, levels were higher, when the farm provided concentrate feed by hand and habituated young cows to milking, requiring specific experimental investigations to draw conclusions on causal associations.To date, little is known about influences on cows’ physiological stress levels on farms. The present study explored associations of fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations (FCM) with (1) farm factors including human–animal contact, (2) cows’ fear behaviors towards humans, and (3) milk production and udder health, involving 25 dairy farms and repeated fecal samples (n = 2625) from 674 focal cows. Farm factors via interviews and observations, avoidance distance (AD) and qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) during a human–animal interaction were recorded. Milk yield and somatic cell scores (SCS) were calculated from milk recordings. Levels of FCMs were in general relatively low. No associations with AD and milk yield could be detected. Correlations between FCMs and QBA and SCS were significant, but on a low level. Against expectations, FCMs were higher, when the farm provided concentrates by hand and habituated heifers to milking, in part possibly due to reversed cause–effect relations. Decreased FCM levels were found on farms that did not separate diseased cows, possibly due to the avoidance of social stress following changes in group structure. Additionally, straw yards compared to raised cubicles and generous compared to suboptimal lying space were associated with decreased levels, underlining the importance of comfort around resting. Moreover, FCMs were decreased with increased human contact time per cow. The different associations detected in this study provide a basis for further experimental investigations that moreover might provide insights into causal relationships.

Reliability of observer ratings: Qualitative behaviour assessments of shelter dogs using a fixed list of descriptors

Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) is a whole-animal approach used to quantify the expressive style of animals’ behaviour. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inter-observer reliability of QBA of shelter dogs using a fixed list of descriptors. The fixed list of 20 terms was generated using a group of experts and literature reviews. In the pilot study, seven veterinary students scored 12 two-minute video clips, and in the main study, 22 final year veterinary nurse students and third-year veterinary students scored the same videos. The two datasets were analysed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and the level of agreement for the main components and individual terms was assessed using Kendall's coefficient of concordance (W). In the pilot study, the observer agreement was 0.89 for PC1 and 0.78 for PC2, indicating high inter-observer agreement. The reliability was similarly high for both components in the main study (0.88 and 0.79, respectively). Results also demonstrated high or moderate agreement for most of the terms included in the fixed list. We propose that this approach can be a useful learning tool for students. Our results support further exploration of this method for the assessment of shelter dog welfare by direct observation.

Nonparametric analysis of noncognitive determinants of response type, intensity, mood, and learning in donkeys (Equus asinus)

Operant conditioning and quantitative and Qualitative Behavioral Assessment synergism can provide valuable information about animals' extinction/learning and emotional status. In this study, we tested operant conditioning with 300 donkeys using six different reinforcers. Simultaneously, we studied the effects 15 animal-inherent, environment and location, and test-related factors had on the response type and intensity, mood, and extinction/learning ability variables. We sought to test three hypotheses using nonparametric categorical analyses. First, we studied which of the 15 noncognitive factors could explain the variability of the 4 behavioral variables and their explanatory power. Second, we assessed the frontal and lateral ear positions donkeys displayed when each reinforcement treatment was implemented to study the correlations between the ear position and twelve mood Qualitative Behavioral Assessment categories. Third, we assessed which reinforcement treatment was more suitable to promote donkeys' learning and welfare, studying their success rate at completing the operant conditioning test and welfare-related behavioral signs, respectively. Almost all noncognitive factors significantly affected four variables (P < 0.001), although some were not linearly correlated. Our results show that body language is as an efficient tool to report translatable information on the donkey's mood and that neutral or luring/positive reinforcement techniques promote learning and are welfare-friendly methods to modified behaviors in donkeys.

Horses Could Perceive Riding Differently Depending on the Way They Express Poor Welfare in the Stable

This study investigated the relationships between four behavioral and postural indicators of a compromised welfare state in loose boxes (stereotypies, aggressive behaviors toward humans, withdrawn posture reflecting unresponsiveness to the environment, and alert posture indicating hypervigilance) and the way horses perceived riding. This perception was inferred using a survey completed by the usual riding instructor and during a standardized riding session (assessment of behaviors and postures, qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) and characterization of the horses’ locomotion using an inertial measurement unit). In accordance with ear and tail positions and the QBA, stereotypic and the most hypervigilant horses in loose boxes seemed to experience a more negative affective state during the riding session compared with nonstereotypic and less hypervigilant animals (P < .02 in all cases). Horses which were aggressive toward humans in loose boxes had higher scores regarding the occurrence of discomfort and defensive behaviors on the survey than nonaggressive horses (P = .03). They also presented higher dorsoventral accelerations at a canter during the riding session (P = .03), requiring the rider to increase his spinal movement (P = .005). These results suggest that aggressive horses may be harder to ride than nonaggressive animals. The expression of unresponsiveness to the environment in loose boxes was related to more reluctance to move forward, as assessed in the survey (P = .006). This study suggests that a compromised welfare state in the stable is related to horses having a more negative perception of riding. This perception could vary depending on the expression of poor welfare.

Interobserver reliability of measures of the Welfare Quality® animal welfare assessment protocol for sows and piglets

AbstractThe aim of this study was to assess the interobserver reliability of the measures forming the Welfare Quality® animal welfare assessment protocol for sows and piglets. The study was carried out at nine farms in Northern Germany. Two trained observers evaluated identical animals simultaneously but independently in 40 joint farm visits. Interobserver reliability was calculated at individual animal level using Cohen's kappa, weighted kappa and the prevalence-adjusted, bias-adjusted kappa (PABAK) and at farm level using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (RS), the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), smallest detectable change (SDC) and limits of agreement (LoA). While a direct comparison of the adjectives of the qualitative behaviour assessment showed poor interobserver reliability, a Principal Component Analysis detected good interobserver reliability. The assessment of social and exploratory behaviours showed acceptable interobserver reliability, while the assessment of stereotypies displayed good interobserver reliability. The human-animal relationship test showed only poor interobserver reliability at individual animal and farm levels. In most cases, measures of health and physical state assessed in sows and piglets exhibited acceptable or good interobserver reliability. In conclusion, after some measures are revised, particularly those examining the human-animal relationship, the Welfare Quality® protocol for sows and piglets will represent a reliable approach in terms of interobserver reliability to assess the welfare of sows and piglets.

Preliminary Findings on a Novel Behavioural Approach for the Assessment of Pain and Analgesia in Lambs Subject to Routine Husbandry Procedures.

The identification and assessment of pain in sheep under field conditions are important, but, due to their stoic nature, are fraught with many challenges. In Australia, various husbandry procedures that are documented to cause pain are routinely performed at lamb marking, including ear tagging, castration, mulesing, and tail docking. This study evaluated the validity of a novel methodology to assess pain in lambs: qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) was used to compare the behavioural expression of control lambs (CONTROL) with that of lambs subject to these procedures that received either a saline placebo 15 min before procedures (PLACEBO), or were administered meloxicam 15 min before procedures in addition to the standard analgesic Tri-Solfen at the time of procedures, as per the manufacturer's recommendations (ANALGESIC TREATMENT; AT). In terms of behavioural expression, it was expected that: CONTROL ≠ PLACEBO, AT = CONTROL, and PLACEBO ≠ AT. Video footage of the 6-8-week-old lambs (n = 10 for each treatment) was captured approximately 1.5 h postprocedure and was presented, in a random order, to 19 observers for assessment using the Free-Choice Profiling (FCP) approach to QBA. There was significant consensus (p < 0.001) among the observers in their assessment of the lambs, with two main dimensions of behavioural expression explaining 69.2% of the variation. As expected, observers perceived differences in the demeanour of lambs in the first dimension, scoring all lambs subject to the routine husbandry procedures as significantly more 'dull' and 'uneasy' compared to the control lambs (p < 0.05). Contrary to expectations, the results also suggested that analgesic treatment did not provide relief at the time of observation. Further investigations to validate the relationship between behavioural expression scores and pain are necessary, but these results suggest that painful husbandry procedures alter the behavioural expression of lambs and these differences can be captured using QBA methodology.

Qualitative behaviour assessment as an indicator of animal emotional welfare in farm assurance

Acknowledgement of animals as sentient beings (including farm animal species), capable of experiencing positive and negative emotions, has highlighted the need for suitable ‘welfare outcome’ measures in farm assurance schemes. Current schemes tend to focus on measures of physical health and productivity, but there is as yet a lack of indicators addressing farmed animals' emotional wellbeing. A number of assessment techniques exist that may help us develop such indicators, and better understand the extent to which farm animals do, or do not, experience ‘a good life’. This article focuses on one such technique, ‘qualitative behaviour assessment’ (QBA), and reviews the potential benefits of, and challenges to, its practical deployment in the field.

Brain tissue volumes at term-equivalent age are associated with early motor behavior in very preterm infants.

Preterm birth is associated with a wide range of adverse developmental outcomes, including sensory, motor, cognitive and language impairments, and behavioral or attention problems. Subtle motor deficits that might emerge in premature infants with no evident or with mild brain injury encompass qualitative and quantitative aspects of motor behavior. This prospective cohort study provided an evaluation of the relationship between brain tissue volumes revealed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at term-equivalent age and motor behavior in infancy in very preterm infants (total number=40; mean gestational age=28weeks+4days; mean birth weight=1190g) without evident or with mild brain injury. Infants were recruited at birth and assessed at 12months corrected age using the tool for qualitative and quantitative assessment of motor behavior, infant motor profile. The brain tissue was segmented first using advanced segmentation techniques and the volumes were measured by summing the volumes of all voxels belonging to a particular tissue class. The associations between volumetric brain MRI measures with motor behavior were explored using linear regression analyses. Results showed that larger total brain volumes were associated with higher motor score. Similar relationships were documented for parietal lobe, deep gray matter, and cerebellum volumes. Volumetric quantitative data of brain structures may serve as biomarkers for subtle motor deficits described in very preterm born infants without or with mild brain lesions apparent on MRI.

Deciphering Cattle Temperament Measures Derived From a Four-Platform Standing Scale Using Genetic Factor Analytic Modeling.

The animal's reaction to human handling (i.e., temperament) is critical for work safety, productivity, and welfare. Subjective phenotyping methods have been traditionally used in beef cattle production. Even so, subjective scales rely on the evaluator's knowledge and interpretation of temperament, which may require substantial experience. Selection based on such subjective scores may not precisely change temperament preferences in cattle. The objectives of this study were to investigate the underlying genetic interrelationships among temperament measurements using genetic factor analytic modeling and validate a movement-based objective method (four-platform standing scale, FPSS) as a measure of temperament. Relationships among subjective methods of docility score (DS), temperament score (TS), 12 qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) attributes and objective FPSS including the standard deviation of total weight on FPSS over time (SSD) and coefficient of variation of SSD (CVSSD) were investigated using 1,528 calves at weaning age. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified two latent variables account for TS and 12 QBA attributes, termed difficult and easy from their characteristics. Inclusion of DS in EFA was not a good fit because it was evaluated under restraint and other measures were not. A Bayesian confirmatory factor analysis inferred the difficult and easy scores discovered in EFA. This was followed by fitting a pedigree-based Bayesian multi-trait model to characterize the genetic interrelationships among difficult, easy, DS, SSD, and CVSSD. Estimates of heritability ranged from 0.18 to 0.4 with the posterior standard deviation averaging 0.06. The factors of difficult and easy exhibited a large negative genetic correlation of −0.92. Moderate genetic correlation was found between DS and difficult (0.36), easy (−0.31), SSD (0.42), and CVSSD (0.34) as well as FPSS with difficult (CVSSD: 0.35; SSD: 0.42) and easy (CVSSD: −0.35; SSD: −0.4). Correlation coefficients indicate selection could be performed with either and have similar outcomes. We contend that genetic factor analytic modeling provided a new approach to unravel the complexity of animal behaviors and FPSS-like measures could increase the efficiency of genetic selection by providing automatic, objective, and consistent phenotyping measures that could be an alternative of DS, which has been widely used in beef production.

Validity aspects of behavioural measures to assess cows’ responsiveness towards humans

Different measures reflecting the cows’ behavioural responses towards humans are used for the assessment of the human–animal relationship (HAR). Besides the established avoidance distance (AD), different handling tests, such as the tolerance to tactile interaction (TTI), release behaviour after restraint (RB), and qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) during a human–animal interaction are used. However, uncertainties still exist regarding the measures’ validity, vulnerability to confounders or risks of observer bias. These aspects are addressed in the current study. AD, TTI, RB, and QBA were investigated on a research farm regarding (1) their relationships with an expected HAR improvement due to rewarding human-animal contact (here: manual provision of concentrate), (2) potential confounding effects of lactation status (before/after calving), (3) or an expectedly aversive event of claw trimming, and (4) the occurrence of expectation bias. Concerning objectives 1–3, different samples of cows (n = 13–29 out of 102 in total) were assessed repeatedly and differences in behaviour before and after manual concentrate provision, calving, and claw trimming were analysed using paired Wilcoxon tests; for the latter blinded videos were used. For objective 4, both for non-blinded live and blinded video assessments it was tested separately, whether assessments before and after claw trimming differed. After a 6-days period of manual concentrate provision, cows had lower ADs (p = 0.013, n = 27), responded less fearfully in TTI (p = 0.045, n = 27) and QBA (p = 0.026, n = 14), and by tendency in RB (p = 0.052, n = 27), supporting the measures´ construct validity, i.e. that all of them reflect changes in the relationship to humans after the cows experienced rewarding routine interactions. Neither blinded assessments before and one day after claw trimming (p = 0.489–1.0, n = 29), nor assessments before and after calving (p = 0.244–1.0, n = 13) differed significantly, suggesting that single routine procedures and physiological changes around calving do not confound assessments. Numerically, in non-blinded QBA after claw trimming cows were assessed less fearful than in blinded, possibly because the observer tried to avoid bias. Nevertheless, non-blinded live assessments did not yield any significant differences between HAR measures before and after claw trimming (paired Wilcoxon: p = 0.151–1.0, n = 15–29).

Injury patients’ perceptions of drink-driving: A qualitative assessment of drink-driving behavior in Moshi, Tanzania

BackgroundGlobally, about 2.3 billion people are current alcohol drinkers, and 283 million have an alcohol use disorder. Alcohol use while driving is a major contributor to road traffic injuries (RTI). We need to understand the culture and perception of drink-driving in this setting to understand why people continue to drink drive and allow policymakers to develop more effective ways to address drink-driving behavior. This study aims to qualitatively determine what injury patients, their families, and community advisory board members in Tanzania believe about drink-driving to help inform policies to address this problem.MethodsThe semi-structured focus group was designed based on the grounded theory and assessed using thematic analysis. Focus groups participants were a convenience sample of injury patients, their families, and community advisory board (CAB) members. Analysis was iterative throughout the study. All transcripts were coded using a thematic narrative approach. Representative quotes for each theme were then selected based on comparative analysis of coding with input from research team members.ResultsA total of ten focus groups were conducted (4 patient, 4 family, and 2 CAB) with a total of 104 participants (37 females and 67 males). The normalization of drinking among drivers has allowed this behavior to become ingrained in the culture. Participants expressed notions that passengers are responsible for their own safety, rather than drivers being responsible for their passengers. Most participants believe it is a citizen’s duty to inform the police of suspected drink-driving, however there were differing opinions about how effective informed police officers can be in practice. Focus group discussions between all three population types highlighted major themes of ‘drinking is ingrained in boda boda driver culture’, ‘individuals have a personal responsibility to address drink-driving’, and a ‘police enforcement on drink-driving is necessary’.ConclusionsNormalization of drink-driving in commercial driver culture creates a dangerous environment for passengers which can be mitigated by education and health promotion. As most passengers already take personal responsibility for their own road traffic safety, they may be likely to make use of safe ride options, if available. While legislation is in place against drink-driving, police officers need to be empowered with appropriate training and funding to enforce them.

Qualitative Assessment of Contact Behavior in Fretting Wear of Dissimilar Mating Pairs Using Frictional Dissipation Energy Density Approach

Abstract Fretting is a damaging phenomenon, generally observed when a mating pair is subjected to a small amplitude of oscillatory motion. The contact behavior in fretting is governed by a complex interaction between mechanical properties of mating pair, contact geometry, and loading conditions. In most of the practical applications, dissimilar materials are chosen for a contacting pair with one of the materials having superior material properties than other so as to replace the worn-out or unfit component during the maintenance. In the literature, many researchers have studied the effect of dissimilar materials on fretting behavior but mainly in the context of hardness. As experimental methodology has been adopted in these studies, the effect of dissimilar material properties has been reported in terms of global variables like wear volume or fretting fatigue life, but its influence on underlying local contact tractions could not be studied. In the present work, a two-dimensional finite element analysis has been carried out for a cylinder-on-plate configuration. The effect of dissimilar materials for the mating pair has been studied by modeling elastic–plastic behavior for combinations of three different materials, namely, SS 304, ASTM A302-B, and aluminum. The validation of the finite element model is carried out by comparing the results of elastic analysis with the analytical solutions available in the literature. The pertinent contact parameters in the context of fretting wear, namely, contact pressure, contact slip, and contact stresses are extracted. A frictional dissipation energy density-based approach is used for the qualitative comparison of the fretting damage for different cases and validated with the literature data.

Exploring the Use of a Qualitative Behavioural Assessment Approach to Assess Emotional State of Calves in Rodeos.

Simple SummaryThe nature of rodeo events, including calf-roping, bull- and bronco-riding and steer-wrestling, regularly subject animals to rough handling in ways likely to elicit fear. However, there have been only limited attempts to assess the emotional state of animals undergoing these handling techniques. The current project aims to explore the potential of a qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) approach to estimate various emotional states by examining images of calves before and after being roped during a rodeo event. QBA is based on human descriptors that summarise the dynamic, expressive style of an animal’s interaction with its environment; e.g., relieved, calm, contented, or anxious. The study found that calves show very different emotions (what they are experiencing emotionally) and behaviours (what they are doing) during the two phases of calf-roping assessed: the chase and recovery. These results indicate that a QBA approach has potential for assessing animal welfare in the entertainment industry.There are longstanding disagreements between the rodeo industry stakeholders and animal welfare advocates about the wellbeing of the animals used in events. The current study aims to determine whether qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) is effective in identifying the emotional state of calves in so-called calf-roping events. Still images of calves captured from videos of calf-roping were shown to two groups: practitioners (n = 7) and students (n = 16). For each image, they scored (on a scale of 1–10) 12 descriptive terms—e.g., stressed, energetic, confused, frightened—based on how strongly they thought the animal was experiencing that emotion. Scores were analysed using Factor Analysis and Ordinal Logistic Regression models, while inter-rater reliability was assessed using Intra-Class Correlation Coefficients. The same imagery (video and images) were analysed for behaviours associated with the calves’ ears, neck, legs and tail to develop a behavioural ethogram, which was analysed with Binary Logistic Regression and Anova wrapping. The students were also surveyed to assess their empathy towards animals. The chase phase attracted significantly higher scores for stressed (µ = 5.0, p < 0.001), agitated (µ = 5.1, p < 0.001), anxious (µ = 5.0, p < 0.001) and frightened (µ = 5.0, p < 0.001), and the behavioural ethogram revealed that calves commonly galloped (p < 0.001) and held their tails rigidly during this phase (p = 0.010). In contrast, the recovery phase was characterised by significantly higher scores for calm (µ = 3.0, p < 0.001), contented (µ = 2.7, p < 0.001) and relieved (µ = 1.6, p < 0.001), and calves moved slower (p < 0.001) with more neutral ear positions (ears axial p = 0.008, ears forward p = 0.010). A clear pre- and post-rope effect was evident, showing that QBA indicated that calves were anxious while being chased and were relieved when they had been released. The survey data revealed that students who had more empathy for animals in pain and for those used in experiments were more empathetic towards calves during the chase phase. They felt that calves being chased were agitated, anxious, stressed, frightened and confused. These results confirm that QBA has the potential as a tool for assessing the welfare of animals used in rodeos.

Evaluation of Beef Cattle Temperament Attributes Using Infrared Thermography Technology

ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to evaluate beef cattle temperament scores using infrared thermography technology.Materials and MethodsAngus and Angus × Hereford calves (total n = 650) were brought through a handling chute system over two weaning sessions (October 2016 and 2017). Beef cattle temperament was subjectively quantified by (1) temperament score (TS), the disposition of the animal observed by an individual evaluator on a scale of 1 (calm) to 5 (excitable); (2) docility score (DS), the level of observed calmness of the animal displayed (1 = calm to 6 = excitable); and (3) qualitative behavior assessment (QBA), scored on twelve different attributes, (i.e., active, relaxed, etc.). There were two traits measured on a four-platform standing scale: (1) the standard deviation of total weight over time (SSD); and (2) the SSD’s coefficient of variation (CVSSD). Thermal images of the animal’s head were acquired by industrial fixed focus infrared camera (TiS40, Fluke Corporation, Everett, WA). The maximum, minimum, average, and standard deviation of temperature of the eye region were extracted from the thermal images. Stepwise and linear regression analyses to estimate subjective temperament traits from thermal imaging data and scale data were conducted using the reg procedure in SAS (v. 9.4, SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC). Correlations were estimated using the corr procedure in SAS.ResultsThe results showed low correlations between thermal imaging and subjective temperament traits. The correlations that were significant were around an absolute value of 0.1. However, all four thermal imaging traits were significantly correlated when the animal exhibited distress observed by QBA. When fitting only thermal imaging data into the regression analyses, R2 values were all under 0.03. When including SSD and CVSSD, there were a few traits with an R2 &gt; 0.1 and none having an R2 &gt; 0.15. The QBA traits that had an R2 between 0.1 and 0.15 were active, fearful, calm, apathetic, happy, and distressed for both linear and stepwise regressions.ConclusionAdditional validation research on this thermal imaging technology needs to be conducted with temperamental cattle as this current data was collected using observed calmer cattle, to give a more realistic application to beef cattle production. Overall this result shows potential to achieve beef cattle temperament evaluation with thermal imaging.Figure 1.

Behavioural assessment of sheep is sensitive to level of gastrointestinal parasite infection

Qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) was applied to investigate the expressive behaviour of sheep with varying intestinal parasite burdens over two experiments. The expressive behaviour of sheep naturally infected with intestinal parasites was assessed from video footage collected in the paddock, and assessments were compared pre- and post-treatment with anthelmintic drench. The first experiment assessed sheep with a range of parasite burdens (n = 28), and the second compared sheep that expressed clinical symptoms of parasitism (Anaemic, n = 5) with those that did not (Non-anaemic, n = 5). Behavioural expression scores were validated against individual clinical evaluations (faecal egg counts – FEC, faecal consistency and anaemia scores), production parameters (body mass and body condition score), and quantitative locomotive measures (walking speed and return order to paddock). Twenty-two observers scored 28 video clips using QBA in experiment 1, and in the second experiment, 35 observers scored 20 video clips that depicted the 10 focal sheep pre- and post-treatment. QBA scores were analysed using Generalised Procrustes Analysis (GPA), and sheep scores on the main GPA dimensions were evaluated in relation to parasite burden using Spearman Rank correlations and repeated-measures ANOVA for experiment 1 and 2, respectively. In both experiments, observers reached significant (P < 0.001) consensus in their assessment of the behavioural expression of sheep. In experiment 1, sheep with higher FEC had lower anaemia scores (indicative of anaemia), poor body condition, lower body mass, walked slower, ranked lower in return order, and were scored by observers as more docile/at ease, and more assertive/motivated on GPA dimensions 1 and 3, respectively (P < 0.05). In experiment 2, observers scored Anaemic sheep as significantly more unsettled/apprehensive compared to Non-anaemic sheep on GPA dimension 1 (P < 0.05). In addition, observers consistently scored Non-anaemic sheep as more bright/observant following treatment on dimension 2 (P < 0.001). On dimension 3, all animals were scored by observers as less depressed/suspicious post-treatment (P < 0.05). An increase in average walking speed across all sheep was also identified post-treatment (P < 0.05). We conclude that under the conditions tested, QBA could provide information on the behavioural expression of sheep related to varying parasite burdens and the impact of treatment. The data presented herein offers proof of concept that assessments of behavioural expression could aid producers in the monitoring and management of parasitised sheep on-farm in terms of identification of individuals for treatment, and efficacy of anthelmintic treatment.