Qualitative Behaviour Assessment Research Articles

Qualitative Behavioural Assessment as a Method to Identify Potential Stressors during Commercial Sheep Transport.

Simple SummaryLand transport is a common and unavoidable experience for most livestock, yet it remains a health and welfare concern. From the animals’ perspective, transport involves mixing with other animals, novel experiences, and prolonged standing, often after periods of water and feed withdrawal (‘curfews’). Although the physical effects of transport have been studied, often by the impact on meat quality, the effects on the mental well-being of sheep are unknown. The aim of this study was to identify factors that influence the behavioural expression of sheep undergoing land transport, using observers who were blinded to the experimental treatments to score the animal’s body language during land transport. Various vehicle crate types, deck positions, sheep breeds and point of origin were compared. All treatments were variations on current commercial transport, and therefore stocking density was similar between the vehicles as per regulatory requirements, but truck designs varied. This study supports using the scoring of behavioural expression to assess sheep welfare during transport.Land transport is an unavoidable experience for most livestock, yet there is limited research comparing animal welfare under different conditions. We video recorded sheep responses during short (2 h) commercial road transport journeys. Using Qualitative Behavioural Assessment, observers (blinded to the treatments) scored the behavioural expression of sheep and reached significant consensus in their scoring patterns (p < 0.001). There were also significant effects of vehicle crate design (sheep transported in a ‘standard’ crate were more calm/relaxed than those transported in a ‘convertible’ crate), deck position (sheep on upper decks were more curious/alert than those on lower decks), and sheep breed (fat-tail sheep were more agitated/distressed than merino sheep) on observer scores. We only found marginal differences for sheep originating from feedlot or saleyard. Significant effects of vehicle driver (included as a random factor in all but one of our analyses) suggest driving patterns contributed to demeanour of the sheep. Finally, the fourteen drivers who participated in the study were asked their opinions on livestock transport; none of the factors we tested were identified by drivers as important for sheep welfare during transport. This study supports the use of qualitative measures in transport and revealed differences that could inform truck design.

Artificial rearing affects piglets pre-weaning behaviour, welfare and growth performance

One strategy adopted on farms to deal with managing large litters involves removing piglets from their mothers at seven days old to be reared in specialised accommodation with milk replacer. Effects on piglet behaviour, growth and some aspects of welfare were evaluated in this study by comparing 10 pairs of two litters (one sow-reared: SR, one artificially-reared: AR) selected at seven days-old at a similar weight. Piglet behaviour was recorded for 20 min following transfer of AR piglets to the artificial-rearing enclosure (D0) and for 20 min hourly between 09:00 h and 17:00 h (8 h) on D5 and D12. Hourly 5 min live observations were also undertaken. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) was conducted on D14 to evaluate piglets’ emotional state. Survival and illness events were recorded until weaning. On D0, D1, D8 and D15 piglets were weighed and scored for tear staining, dirtiness of the face and severity of lesions on the snout, limbs, ear and tail. Survival and illness rates, as well as the rates of behaviours/min were analysed using GLMMs. Weights and QBA scores were analysed using GLM. Lesions, tear staining and dirtiness scores were averaged per litter and analysed using GLM. When AR piglets were transferred to the artificial-rearing enclosure, their behaviour was not different to SR piglets. Over the two observation days, AR piglets performed more belly-nosing (F1,76.53 = 42.25; P < 0.001), nursing-related displacements (F1,79 = 19.32, P < 0.001), visits to the milk cup (compared to nursing bouts; F1,73.8 = 38.42, P < 0.001), and oral manipulation of littermates’ ears (F1,91.95 = 12.79, P < 0.001) and tails (F1,58.54 = 15.63, P < 0.001) than SR piglets. However, SR piglets played alone (F1,88.99 = 8.29, P < 0.005) and explored their environment (F1,99.42 = 4.52, P < 0.05) more frequently than AR piglets. The QBA scores indicated a lower emotional state in AR piglets (t25.1=-3.25, P < 0.05). Survival rate and overall illness rate of piglets were similar between the treatments. AR piglets experienced a growth check following their transfer to the artificial-rearing enclosure and remained lighter than SR piglets through to weaning (6.53 ± 0.139 kg vs. 7.97 ± 0.168 kg, t256 = 9.79, P < 0.001). Overall, snout lesion scores were not different between the treatments, but AR piglets had lower limb (F1,10.1 = 5.89, P < 0.05) and ear (F1,14.5 = 24.89, P < 0.001) lesion scores and higher tail lesion scores (F1,34.5 = 15.54, P < 0.001). AR piglets were dirtier (F1,17.4 = 23.38, P < 0.001) but had lower tear staining scores (F1,19.1 = 68.40, P < 0.001) than SR piglets. In conclusion, artificial rearing impaired piglets’ behaviour, welfare and growth.

Evaluación de neofobia en un rebaño de gamos en cautividad

La neofobia es un comportamiento ecológicamente relevante que surge a través de una evaluación cognitiva de estímulos novedosos. Evaluamos las respuestas de 8 gamos en cautividad, utilizando una prueba de reacción frente a objetos nobeles y una escala de evaluación cualitativa del comportamiento. El análisis de componentes principales categóricos reveló que la variabilidad presente en la población para la prueba de neofobia explicaba el 69,94% de la varianza encontrada en el rebaño estudiado. Se detectó que las variables estaban desde pobremente correlacionadas hasta altamente correlacionadas, tanto positiva como negativamente. Las correlaciones negativas entre las variables medidas variaron desde -0.005 (entre el tiempo que el animal está distraído y la edad) hasta -0.912 (entre la edad y la jerarquía), y los positivos desde 0.005 (entre el tiempo de aproximación hasta un metro y la edad) hasta 0.831 (entre el tiempo que el animal está distraído y el tiempo que el animal se toma para prestar atención, pero permanece inmóvil). Estos hallazgos resaltan la naturaleza de las respuestas neofóbicas en ungulados bajo cautiverio y cómo la estructura social las afecta.

Computer-aided autism diagnosis via second-order difference plot area applied to EEG empirical mode decomposition

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a name for a group of neurodevelopmental conditions that are characterized by some degree of impairment in social interaction, verbal and non-verbal communication, and difficulty in symbolic capacity and repetitive behaviors. The only protocol followed currently for ASD diagnosis is the qualitative behavioral assessment by experts through internationally established descriptive scaling standards. The assessment can, therefore, be affected by the degree of the evaluator experience as well as by the level of the descriptive standard robustness. This paper presents an EEG-based quantitative approach intended for automatic discrimination between children with typical neurodevelopment and children with ASD. The suggested work relies on second-order difference plot (SODP) area as a discriminative feature: First, every EEG channel in a 64 electrode cap—for every volunteer—is decomposed into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) by empirical mode decomposition (EMD). Next, the second-order difference plot for the first ten intrinsic mode functions—of every channel—is sketched. Third, the value of the elliptical area —for every plot—is calculated. The 95% confidence ellipse area is used as the discriminative feature. Fourth, paired t-student test is applied to the vectors consisting of discriminative feature values for counterpart channels/IMFs (e.g., channel FPz/IMF7 in autistic and neurotypical) for all volunteers. Finally, principal component analysis (PCA) and neural network (NN) are applied to the SODP area feature matrix for two-class classification (ASD and neurotypical). Moreover, the 3D mapping of EEG SODP area values was implemented and analyzed. The obtained results show that the conducted t-student tests yield values of less than 0.05, and that the NN two-class classification based on SODP features leads to a 94.4% accuracy, which indicates significant differences between SODP area values of children with neurotypical development and those diagnosed with ASD. The obtained results have also been emphasized by the analysis of the findings of the performed 3D mapping.

What can the quantitative and qualitative behavioural assessment of videos of sheep moving through an autonomous data capture system tell us about welfare?

Sheep can be exposed to a variety of challenges and failure to adapt to these challenges can compromise their health and wellbeing. Regular monitoring of stock on large-scale or extensive systems may not always be possible, although recent technological advancements in automated data capture, such as walk-over-weighing (WoW), can make monitoring easier. The potential benefit of including behavioural assessment in such a system has yet to be tested. We investigated whether quantitative and qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) methods could be applied to short video footage collected automatically within a WoW setup, to differentiate between sheep that were, presumably, in different (positive and negative) welfare states. Video footage was collected from 36 Merino sheep within the four treatment groups; Control (n = 12), Habituated to the WoW setup and human interaction (n = 8), Lame (n = 8) and Inappetent (n = 8). Habituated sheep were exposed to a low-stress handling regimen for six consecutive days prior to filming. At the same time, feeding behaviour was recorded by means of radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology to identify sheep suffering inappetence. Lame sheep were identified using a 6-point scoring system, and Control animals were selected ensuring that they were not Lame, Inappetent or Habituated. For QBA, the footage was presented, in a random order, to 18 observers. There was a significant (P < 0.001) consensus among the observers in their assessment of the behavioural expression of the sheep. Observers described the Habituated and Lame sheep as significantly more focused/collected/assured compared to the Control sheep (P < 0.05). There was no difference in observer scores between the Inappetent sheep compared to the Controls. A number of associations were found between the QBA scores and the quantitative behavioural measures recorded. Sheep that baulked more frequently at the entrance to the WoW system (Rs = −0.70; P < 0.001) or had a greater number of circling events (Rs = −0.68; P < 0.001) were described as more reluctant/tense/wary, while those that recorded faster walking speeds (Rs = 0.65; P < 0.001) or spent less time standing stationary (Rs= −0.48; P < 0.01) were described as more focused/collected/assured. We conclude that qualitative and quantitative behavioural measures can be used to identify differences in animal behaviour, presumably related to their welfare state, when applied to short video clips automatically collected in a WoW setup. These findings suggest that behavioural measures could be collected, practically, within automated biometric data capture systems to provide additional information to aid in the assessment of sheep welfare in extensive systems.

The Use of Qualitative Behaviour Assessment for the On-Farm Welfare Assessment of Dairy Goats.

Simple SummaryThe use of feasible indicators to evaluate animals’ emotional states in farm animals is strongly encouraged for welfare assessment. The inclusion of qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) in on-farm protocols has been constantly increasing during the last few years; but its association with other welfare measures has been scarcely investigated so far. In the present study; we investigated whether QBA shows a meaningful coherence with other measures included in the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) welfare assessment protocol for dairy goats. We confirmed that QBA can clearly discern mood (from Agitated/Alert to Content/Relaxed) and the level of activity (from Bored to Lively) in goats. Furthermore; goats with a shiny hair coat seem more relaxed and sociable than goats with a poor hair coat condition. In contrast; farms where the workload for the stockperson is high have goats that were observed as more bored and suffering; probably because farmers do not invest enough time in taking care of their animals. Even though we found only few relations between QBA and the other measures of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol; the holistic approach of QBA can be useful to integrate the assessment and give a different perspective on the complexity of animals’ emotions and overall welfare state.This research investigated whether using qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) with a fixed list of descriptors may be related to quantitative animal- (ABM) and resource-based (RBM) measures included in the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) welfare assessment prototype protocol for goats, tested in 60 farms. A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on QBA descriptors; then PCs were correlated to some ABMs and RBMs. Subsequently, a combined PCA merged QBA scores, ABMs and RBMs. The study confirms that QBA can identify the differences in goats’ emotions, but only few significant correlations were found with ABMs and RBMs. In addition, the combined PCA revealed that goats with a normal hair coat were scored as more relaxed and sociable. A high farm workload was related to bored and suffering goats, probably because farmers that can devote less time to animals may fail to recognise important signals from them. Goats were scored as sociable, but also alert, in response to the presence of an outdoor run, probably because when outdoors they received more stimuli than indoors and were more attentive to the surroundings. Notwithstanding these results, the holistic approach of QBA may allow to register animals’ welfare from a different perspective and be complementary to other measures.

Can we monitor adaptation of juvenile goats to a new social environment through continuous qualitative behaviour assessment?

We aimed to verify whether Continuous Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (10 observers used a list of six qualitative descriptors) paired with Temporal Dominant Behavioural Expression (the same observers were asked to select the dominant descriptor and to score its intensity level) was able to monitor fluctuations of animal behaviour expression over time. We applied these techniques to three groups of juvenile goats either weaned (group C), or un-weaned (groups WOM and WM). Each animal was separated from its group, moved to group C and tested for 30 min either while their mothers were at pasture, or while their mothers were in an adjacent pen (group WOM and WM, respectively). Animals from group C were separated from their group and immediately reintroduced to it. TDBE duration and score of each descriptor of behavioural expression were able to detect differences among groups but were unable to describe how the behaviour of the goats changed as the time progressed. TDBE curves described the evolution of each behavioural expression of each animal over time but were unable to detect differences among groups. The χ2 test conducted on peaks of dominance, albeit displaying the variations of the behavioural expression over time and allowing the assessment of differences among groups, focussed on occurrences of higher agreement between observers while neglecting most of the information concerning the descriptors above the level of significance. Conversely, based on mixed analysis of variance with the fixed effects of group, test interval and group x test interval (animal nested into group and observer were considered to be random), most of the descriptors were able to discriminate the three experimental groups while preserving the information on the fluctuations of the behavioural expression of the animals during the test.

Dairy cows under experimentally-induced Escherichia coli mastitis show negative emotional states assessed through Qualitative Behaviour Assessment

Mastitis and associated pain have been identified as a major health and welfare problem affecting dairy cows, however little is known about how cows emotionally experience this illness. Qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) is a ‘whole animal’ methodology for assessing animal emotion, through description and quantification of the expressive qualities of an animal’s dynamic style of behaving (eg as relaxed, anxious). The aim of this study was to use QBA to investigate whether emotional expression in dairy cows is affected by an experimental intra-mammary challenge (mastitis) with Escherichia coli, and to investigate the relationship of QBA scores with nine other clinical, physiological and behavioural welfare indicators.Six Holstein-Friesian cows were inoculated with E. coli in one healthy quarter. Evolution of the disease was assessed using bacteriological growth and somatic cell counts (SCC). The cows’ response to the challenge was assessed using QBA, clinical observations, data loggers, rumen temperature sensor, and physiological indicators (inflammation, stress) at ten time-points defining the phase of the disease: before inoculation (Phase 0: 0 h), in the pre-clinical Phase (Phase 1: 8 h), in the acute phase (Phase 2: 12 h, 16 h, 24 h) and in the remission phase (Phase 3 : 32 h, 40 h, 56 h, 64 h and 80 h post-inoculation (hpi)).Principal Component Analysis of QBA scores identified two main dimensions of cow expression: PC1, ranging from active/vigorous/happy/bright to suffering/dejected/lethargic, and PC2, ranging from fearful/tense/anxious to confident/calm/relaxed, together explaining 58% of the total variation. QBA PC1 and PC2 scores varied with mastitis phases: QBA PC1 scores decreased by 4.09 in Phase 2, and by 1.98 in Phase 3, reflecting suffering/dejected/lethargic expressivity. QBA PC2 scores decreased by 1.91 in Phase 3, reflecting a confident/calm/relaxed expressivity. Clinical and physiological welfare indicators were associated with QBA. The higher the udder severity score, the body temperature, the concentrations of cortisol, SAA, TNF-α, and IL-1β, the more the cows were suffering/dejected/lethargic (PC1) (coefficients: -0.51, -0.92, -2.46, 7.52 × 10−5, -0.72, -1.13 respectively).These findings indicate that dairy cows experienced negative emotional state in the acute phase and positive emotional state in the remission phase of mastitis. This suggests that provision of pain-relief treatment during mastitis may improve animal welfare, and potentially lead to faster disease remission. However the sample size of this study was small, and larger controlled studies are needed to further investigate these findings and hypotheses. The sensitivity of QBA in this small study suggests it could potentially be a useful tool for E. coli mastitis detection.

Using qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) to explore the emotional state of horses and its association with human-animal relationship

This study aimed to apply qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) to horses farmed in single boxes, in order to investigate their emotional state and explore its association with indicators of human-animal relationship. A fixed list of 13 QBA descriptive terms was determined. Three assessors experienced with horses and skilled in measuring animal behaviour underwent a common training period, consisting of a theoretical phase and a practical phase on farm. Their inter-observer reliability was tested on a live scoring of 95 single stabled horses. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted to analyse QBA scores and identify perceived patterns of horse expression, both for data obtained in the training phase and from the on-farm study. Given the good level of agreement reached in the training phase (Kendall W = 0.76 and 0.74 for PC1 and PC2 scores respectively), it was considered acceptable in the subsequent on-farm study to let these three observers each carry out QBA assessments on a sub-selection of a total of 355 sport and leisure horses, owned by 40 horse farms. Assessment took place immediately after entering the farms: assessors had never entered the farms before and were unaware of the different backgrounds of the farms. After concluding QBA scoring, the assessors further evaluated each horse with an avoidance distance test (AD) and a forced human approach test (FHA). A MANOVA test was used to assess the association of the AD and FHA tests with the on-farm QBA PC scores. The QBA approach described in this paper was feasible on farm and showed good acceptability by owners. In the analysis of on-farm QBA scores, the first Principal Component ranged from relaxed/at ease to uneasy/alarmed, the second Component ranged from curious/pushy to apathetic. Horses perceived as more relaxed/at ease with QBA showed less avoidance during the AD test (P = 0.0376), and responded less aggressively and fearfully to human presence in the FHA test (P < 0.0001). Our results support the hypothesis that QBA is sensitive to the quality of human contact in horses.

Identifying physiological measures of lifetime welfare status in pigs: exploring the usefulness of haptoglobin, C- reactive protein and hair cortisol sampled at the time of slaughter

BackgroundPhysiological measures indicative of the welfare status of animals during rearing could form part of an abattoir-based animal health and welfare assessment tool. A total of 66 pigs were used in this study, the aim of which was to assess how serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and C-reactive protein (CRP) (assessed in 51 pigs), and hair concentrations of cortisol (assessed in 65 pigs), measured at or close to slaughter, reflected welfare-related indicators recorded from the animal during its lifetime. These indicators were recorded at intervals between 7 and 21 weeks of age and included assigning scores for levels of tail and skin lesions, recording the presence or absence of certain health issues, and conducting qualitative behavioural assessments (QBA).ResultsPigs recorded as having tail lesions during their lifetime had higher hair cortisol levels than those with no tail lesions (tail lesions: 47.87 ± 3.34 pg/mg, no tail lesions: 42.20 ± 3.29 pg/mg, P = 0.023), and pigs recorded as having moderate or severe tail lesions had higher Hp levels than those with no or mild tail lesions (moderate/severe: 1.711 mg/ml ± 0.74, none/mild: 0.731 mg/ml ±0.10, P = 0.010). Pigs recorded as being lame during their lifetime tended to have higher hair cortisol levels than non-lame pigs (lame: 52.72 pg/mg ± 3.83, not lame: 43.07 pg/mg ± 2.69, P = 0.062). QBA scores were not associated with any of the physiological measures (P > 0.05). Receiver Operator Curve (ROC) analysis was also carried out to get a better understanding of the usefulness of the physiological measures in discriminating animals that had had welfare-related issues recorded during their lifetime from those that had not. Hair cortisol was determined as having ‘moderate’ accuracy in discriminating pigs that were tail bitten on-farm from unbitten pigs (AUC: 0.748) while Hp and CRP were determined to have no meaningful discriminatory ability (AUC < 0.600).ConclusionThis research should be repeated on a larger scale, but the results suggest that hair cortisol measured at slaughter could provide insight into the welfare status of pigs during their lifetime. Hp may be a useful indicator of tail lesions in pigs. However, further research utilising a greater proportion of severely bitten pigs is required before conclusions can be drawn.

Comparative Reliability of the Infant Motor Profile (IMP) in the Greek Language for Infants 3 to 18 Months

In recent years, many tests have been developed to evaluate the mobility and functional capacity of children with Cerebral Palsy (CP). The Infant Motor Profile (IMP) is a recent qualitative infant kinetic behavior assessment for ages 3 to 18 months. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to determine the reliability of the IMP translated for the first time for Greek population, for infants aged 3 to 18 months in order to provide a reliable tool in the hands of experts. Twenty infants (11 girls and 9 boys) with average age ±12.75 months participated in the study. The Greek version of the IMP and a Nikon 5300 digital camera for video recording were used for data collection. The results showed that there were no statistically significant differences between the two independent evaluators and that the Greek IMP had strong reliability. Overall, the results of the present investigation provided considerable evidence suggesting that the Greek version of the IMP test is reliable and can be used to detect kinetic disorders in infants aged 3 to 18 months for the Greek population.

Behavioural assessment of the habituation of feral rangeland goats to an intensive farming system

There is increasing interest in methods for the habituation of feral rangeland goats to intensive farming conditions. We tested whether there were production performance and behavioural differences between groups of rangeland goats in an intensive farming system that were either exposed to a high degree of human interaction (HI, n=60) or low degree of human interaction (LI, n=60) over 3 weeks. In the HI group, a stockperson entered the pens twice daily and calmly walked amongst the goats for 20 mins. In the LI group, a stockperson only briefly entered the pens to check water/feed (daily/weekly). At the end of each week the goats were weighed and drafted into 12 subgroups of 10 animals (i.e. 6 sub-groups per treatment). Each sub-group was then tested for agonistic behaviour, avoidance of humans, and flight response. During the flight response test video footage was collected and later used for analysis using Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA). For QBA analysis, the videos of each group, taken each week, were shown in random order to 16 observers who used their own descriptive terms to score the groups’ behavioural expression. There was a significant interaction between treatment and time on body mass (F3,174=5.0; P<0.01), agonistic behaviour (F3,12=4.3; P<0.05) and flight speed (F3,12=3.9; P<0.05), with the HI group having significantly higher average body mass (P<0.05), fewer agonistic events (P<0.05), and a slower flight speed (P<0.05) than the LI group after the three weeks. Two main QBA dimensions of behavioural expression were identified by Generalised Procrustes Analysis. QBA dimension 1 scores differed between treatments (P<0.05); HI goats scored higher on QBA dimension 1 (more ‘calm/content’) compared to LI goats (more ‘agitated/scared’). QBA dimension 1 scores were significantly negatively correlated with the number of agonistic contacts (Rs=−0.62, P<0.01), and flight speed (Rs=−0.79, P<0.001), and significantly positively correlated with body mass (Rs=0.68, P<0.001) of the goats over the 3 weeks of the experiment. QBA dimension 2 scores were not significantly different between treatments or over time.Findings from this study support the hypothesis that production performance and behavioural measures can distinguish behavioural changes in rangeland goats that were likely a result of habituation to human interaction in an intensive feedlot.

Inter-observer reliability of Qualitative Behavioural Assessments (QBA) of housed sheep in Norway using fixed lists of descriptors

AbstractQualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) is a whole-animal approach used to quantify the expressive style of animals’ behaviour. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inter-observer reliability of principal components and individual descriptors from QBA of housed sheep in Norway using a fixed list of descriptors. In part 1, eight animal welfare inspectors from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority scored 12 two-minute video clips, using 12 pre-defined terms. In the second part, three of these observers visited ten sheep farms and scored the behaviour using a modified list of eight terms. The scores for all assessors within each part were analysed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The level of agreement for the first two components and for individual terms was assessed using Kendall's coefficient of concordance (W). In part 1, only seven observers were assessed for reliability of principal components due to missing data, and for these observers the agreement was high for PC1 and moderate for PC2. For the sub-group of three inspectors that also participated in part 2, the reliability was high for both components. In the on-farm assessments in part 2, these three observers obtained only moderate agreement for PC1 and low agreement for PC2. Results illustrate that good reliability can be achieved with QBA for housed sheep using videos, but that equally satisfactory reliability is more difficult to obtain using the method on-farm. The result in part 2 may be related to less-controlled circumstances concerning exactly what the observers see when sheep are kept indoors with high stocking densities, observer drift, and limited between-farm variation, which is a challenge for many types of reliability studies in field conditions.

How to measure dairy cows’ responsiveness towards humans in breeding and welfare assessment? A comparison of selected behavioural measures and existing breeding traits

For dairy cattle breeding as well as animal welfare science reliability and validity issues regarding measures of cows’ responsiveness towards humans are relevant. The objective of this study was to investigate reliability and validity aspects of four selected behavioural measures at the feeding gate (BM) and to compare them with existing breeding traits and with observations of cows’ behaviour during milking. This included the analysis of criterion validity at animal and at herd level and of repeatability of the BM over time. Data on avoidance distances (AD), tolerance to tactile interaction (TTI), release behaviour (RB), and qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) were collected on a total of 33 dairy farms. The breeding traits average milk flow (AMF), milking speed (MS), and milking temperament (MT) had been recorded per test-day or during linear description by milk testing or breeding associations. Inter- and intra-test associations were investigated by Spearman rank or Pearson correlation analysis. At animal level, significant correlations of different strengths were found within BM ranging from rs=0.28 (p<0.01, n=1890) between AD and TTI to rs=0.74 (p<0.01, n=582) between RB and QBA, and between MS and MT (rs=0.62, p<0.01, n=269). No significant correlations were found between BM and breeding traits. For analyses at herd level, medians and percentages of certain categories were calculated and the average number of stepping (STEP) and kicking (KICK) per cow during milking was recorded. Between all BM closer correlations were found than at animal level. STEP correlated with KICK (rs=0.80, p<0.01, n=24), while no further significant correlations were found between BM, STEP or KICK and breeding traits. For analysis of repeatability BM were applied repeatedly on three farms following a three-week interval. Correlations ranged from rs=0.33 (p<0.01, n=67) for TTI to rs=0.73 (p<0.01, n=23) for QBA. Apparently, behavioural measures at the feeding gate reflect partly similar and partly different aspects of cows’ responsiveness towards humans. The present study underlines methodological problems that exist with MT and MS, and questions the relationship between milkability, milking behaviour and responsiveness in the barn. The analyses show that AD, TTI, and RB appear to be vulnerable to short- or mid-term influences. Overall, QBA turned out to be a promising measure for breeding and welfare assessment.

Reliability of the qualitative behavior assessment as included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs.

Positive emotions constitute a very important part of animal welfare. They are, however, also the most challenging elements to be objectively measured. Due to its feasibility, the qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) is included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs as the animal-based measurement tool for positive emotions. Reliability testing on the QBA in the form as included in the protocols is, however, rare. Therefore, the present study aimed at the evaluation of the inter- and intraobserver as well as test-retest reliability of the QBA in growing pigs. This was done by trained observers based on 19 joint on-farm assessments, the repeated assessments of 24 farms during 2 growing periods, and 107 video sequences. The results were compared between the observers and the repeated farm visits. Therefore, millimeter values were directly compared by calculation of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (RS), and furthermore, the results were subjected to a principal component analysis (PCA). The results identified 2 main principal components (PC; PC1 and PC2) together explaining from 42 to 75% of the variation in the recorded variables of the different PCA. The factor loadings that the adjectives reached on PC1 and PC2 were compared by calculation of RS between observers and farm visits, respectively. Reliability was interpreted as acceptable if at least a moderate correlation was detected; that is, RS was greater than or equal to 0.4. Regarding the on-farm assessments, and, therefore, under practical conditions, no sufficient interobserver reliability (RS = -0.16 for PC1 and RS = 0.13 for PC2) was found. In terms of the test-retest reliability, only 1 comparison of 2 farm visits showed a positive correlation for PC1 (RS = 0.79) as well as for PC2 (RS = 0.64). The other 5 comparisons presented negative to weak positive correlations. However, based on video sequences, good interobserver (RS = 0.67 for PC1 and RS = 0.60 for PC2) and intraobserver (RS = 0.94 for PC1 and RS = 0.44 for PC2) reliability was achieved. Therefore, the present study revealed good reliability for the QBA in the form as it is currently included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs based on video sequences but insufficient reliability for the application on the farm.

Qualitative Behaviour Assessment of horses exposed to short-term emotional treatments

Assessing emotion in animals is fundamental to the study of animal welfare with methodologies for reliable and valid assessments being highly desirable. Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) is based on the assumption that human observers are capable of integrating details of animals’ behavioural expressions using descriptors (e.g. calm, playful) that reflect the animals’ putative emotional experiences. Our study aimed at assessing how treatments assumed to induce different short-term emotional states of both positive and negative valence would affect the observers’ judgements of horses’ behavioural expressions. To this end, 16 horses were each exposed to two positive (grooming, food anticipation) and two negative treatments (food competition, waving a plastic bag) while being video-recorded. Using a Free Choice Profiling methodology, fifteen observers who were blind to treatment were asked to describe and score the horses’ behavioural expressions based on 45s long video clips. General Procrustes Analysis revealed consensus between the observers’ judgements. Three main dimensions of behavioural expression were identified, explaining 84.7% of the variation between horses. Dimension 1 (D1) was positively associated with the terms ‘calm/relaxed/content’ and negatively with the terms ‘nervous/stressed’, whereas dimension 2 (D2) was described as ranging from ‘irritated/impatient/angry’ to ‘frightened/insecure’, and dimension 3 (D3) was labelled as ranging from ‘curious/interested’ to ‘aggressive/irritated’. Linear mixed-effect models revealed an effect of treatment on the horse scores on all three dimensions (D1: F4,60=86.90, p<0.0001; D2: F4,60=69.57, p<0.0001, D3: F4,60=11.05, p<0.0001). In line with our hypotheses, horses were judged as ‘calm/relaxed/content’ (D1) during grooming, whereas they were assessed as ‘stressed/nervous’ (D1) and ‘insecure/frightened’ (D2) when exposed to the plastic bag. In the two food treatments (food anticipation, food competition), horses were judged as ‘irritated/impatient/angry’ (D2). However, on dimension D3, horses during food anticipation were also assessed as more ‘curious/interested’ than in any other treatment. Our study demonstrates that observers showed consensus in their assessment of horses that were exposed to positive and negative short-term treatments and that they could differentiate between these treatments consistent with our hypotheses. Our results indicate that QBA is a promising tool to complement animal welfare assessments in situations of multiple emotional dimensions of both positive and negative valence.

Application of Free Choice Profiling to assess the emotional state of dogs housed in shelter environments

Dogs housed in shelters may experience poor welfare. To ensure these dogs a good quality of life, welfare assessment tools should be sensitive not only to the animals’ physical health but also to their mental state, including the assessment of positive and negative emotions. In this study, we focused on the assessment of shelter dogs’ emotional expression using a Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) approach. Previous work successfully applied QBA to assess the emotional state of working and rescue dogs, and the observations were carried out on individual dogs in standardised settings with little or no stimulation. Results from such experiments might not be fully representative of the expressive demeanour that a dog could show in shelter conditions, where animals are exposed to a number of social and environmental stimuli. Thus, our aim was to apply QBA to a wider variety of shelter environments and social contexts than has been done so far, giving the animals the opportunity to express a wider repertoire of emotions and allowing for a more comprehensive assessment of dogs’ affective state. A set of descriptive terms was generated using Free-Choice-Profiling methodology by a group of 13 observers. QBA was made by scoring 16 video clips of shelter dogs in very different contexts (e.g. single/pair/group housing, presence/absence of human activity). Generalised Procrustes Analysis showed a high consensus between observers’ scoring patterns (75.7%; p<0.001), and generated three main consensus dimensions explaining overall 66.6% of the variation between clips. The terms generated by the observers describing these consensus dimensions were semantically consistent, and characterised dogs as ranging: 1) from “playful/sociable/curious” to “bored/uncomfortable/apathetic”, 2) from “relaxed/tranquil” to “nervous/alert/fearful” and 3) from “stressed/anxious” to “wary/timorous/hesitant”. Overall, these broad dimensions are similar to those described in previous QBA studies on dogs. However, we detected differences in the type or frequency of the terms used, especially concerning three semantic spheres (i.e. “sociability”, “fearfulness” and “boredom”). It appears that, compared to what has been reported previously, by presenting more complex contexts and thus giving the animals the opportunity to express different behaviours, we generated a richer list of terms representing a wider repertoire of emotions. Our results support the notion that QBA can be immediately sensitive to an animal’s circumstances, integrating the ways in which animals experience the conditions in which they live into meaningful emotional indicators. This also highlights the importance of developing QBA tools that are species- and context-specific, especially for applied purposes.

Assessing dairy cow welfare at the beginning and end of the indoor period using the Welfare Quality® protocol

AbstractThe Welfare Quality® (WQ) project developed protocols as international standards for farm animal welfare assessment. For dairy cattle, the WQ protocol may be performed any time during the indoor period when the herd has no access to pasture. However, timing of welfare assessments during the indoor period might influence the outcome, as pasture access influences many welfare aspects and such effects are likely to carry over to the beginning of the indoor period. In order to test this hypothesis, we assessed ten herds at both the beginning and end of the same indoor period. Assessment at the end of the indoor period resulted in a higher prevalence of the following welfare measures: severely lame cows, mild integument alterations, coughs per cow per hour, diarrhoea, and vulvar discharge. In addition, at the end of the indoor period, the mortality rate was higher and the Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) score was worse, but there were fewer cows with dirty udders and mean time to lie down was lower. This led to worse scores on the criterion and principle levels of WQ integration, but resulted in a lower welfare categorisation for one of the herds only. The better scores for several aspects of health and for the QBA at the beginning of the indoor period not only confirm the carryover of positive effects of access to pasture, but also imply a need for careful consideration of the timing and frequency of WQ assessments of herds that are housed outdoors for part of the year.

The role of the ethogram in equitation science

The development of a comprehensive ethogram that could be used to record the behaviour of the ridden horse in a range of different scenarios would provide a valuable resource for researchers within equitation science. However, the relevance of the behaviours included in such an ethogram and guidelines on how these behaviours should be interpreted need to be resolved before such a resource could be universally adopted. The aim of this review is to summarise and evaluate the ethograms used by researchers within equitation science to date, including comparisons between studies and information relating to additional measures taken. Evidence for behavioural interpretation based on equine social behaviour, qualitative behavioural assessment, physiological measures, specific situations and subjective assessment of ‘rideability’ is discussed with reference to the results and conclusions drawn by the authors of the studies included in the review. The behavioural signs of conflict between horse and rider and the potential sources of this conflict, including discomfort, pain, fear and frustration, are identified. To date the most common use of ridden horse ethograms has been in the evaluation of training methods and dressage performance, with the spotlight being on welfare concerns, in particular in relation to head and neck position. It is suggested that future work should include the development of ethograms that are relevant in other equestrian disciplines, where they have the potential to contribute to furthering understanding of the challenges faced by ridden horses and the behaviours associated with positive and negative responses to these. Although the association between specific behaviours and physiological measures was found to be inconsistent in many cases, and individual differences occurred, behavioural observation is still the primary means of evaluating the performance and welfare of the ridden horse. Consequently it is imperative to know what behaviours are important and why. By combining the evidence from the range of available sources it will be possible to get closer to an accurate interpretation of the meaning of different ridden horse behaviours. The evaluation of training methods and the adoption of appropriate performance criteria will only be possible when there is sufficient evidence on which to base these conclusions.

Reliability of the qualitative behavior assessment as included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs

Reliability of the qualitative behavior assessment as included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs