Qin Terracotta Research Articles

An insight into the origin of elemental chromium in the lacquer of Qin terracotta warriors

The origin of elemental chromium for the archaeological weapons from the pits of Qin terracotta warriors in China has been highly controversial. Although previous studies have highlighted that the chromium on the surface of weapon originated from the contamination of surrounding lacquer, the exact origin of chromium in the lacquer remains unclear. In this work, the measurement by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) firstly confirmed that the elemental chromium was indeed contained in the archaeological Qin original lacquer. Nevertheless, the amount of elemental chromium in the Qin lacquer was as low as 0.0759 μg/mg, disclosing that it was impossible to artificially add extra refined chromium-containing substance to the lacquer in the preparation of the terracotta warriors. The soil from the archaeological site of Qin lacquer was found to have a chromium amount of 0.0660 μg/mg by ICP-MS. After the hygrothermal and soil-buried aging cycles for the lab-prepared lacquer, the surface and depth elemental analyses by time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF–SIMS) showed a gradient distribution of elemental chromium from the surface to interior of aged lacquer, indicating the migration and enrichment behavior of elemental chromium from the burial soil towards the lacquer. To explore the migration mechanism of elemental chromium, fluorescence imaging technique was employed in combination with Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterizations. The results revealed that catechol-containing fragments were formed during hygrothermal and soil-buried aging of lacquer and consequently coordinated with chromium ions, inducing the migration of elemental chromium towards the lacquer.

Assessment of chemical degradation of epoxy resin binder used in the service of the Qin terracotta warriors

Since the Qin terracotta warriors were unearthed, polyamide 650 cross-linked E-44 epoxy resin binder has been employed to bond and restore them. In this paper, the chemical aging of the binders service in indoor natural environment during the past 30 years in the terracotta warriors was studied by means of infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The results indicated that the binders did not emerge the characteristic peak of carbonyl stretching vibration at 1700 cm−1 in the IR spectra of all determined binders, and their thermal decomposition curves did not emerge any abnormal changes, and the thermal decomposition mainly occurred above 300 °C. There are evident ceramic grains attached to the surface of the binders being peeled off for sampling. These results that the binders service in the Qin terracotta warriors did not exhibit an observable chemical aging and still has strong adhesion. Generally, discrepancies were observed between natural aging and accelerated artificial aging due to the ineffectiveness of the latter to reproduce the effects of complex weather conditions. Compared to artificially accelerated aging, the evaluation results in a long-term natural aging of the binder which is used for restoration of the life-size Qin terracotta warriors, providing in the present investigation, are more reliable in terms of predicting the safety of restored terracotta warriors.

문화유산관광지 방문객의 관광동기, 관광제약과 관광만족도, 재방문의도 간의 구조적 관계 연구

Cultural heritage tourism differs from other types of tourism in that it focuses on the resources of relics and the value of historical sites. Despite high levels of satisfaction among visitors, the intention to return to cultural heritage sites is low. The purpose of this study was to identify the main factors that negatively contribute to the intention to revisit cultural heritage tourism by investigating the structural relationships among cultural heritage tourists who had a higher motive to learn knowledge, as well as higher income and education, when compared to other types of tourism. From November 15 to December 10, 2019, the convenience sampling technique was used to target tourists who visited the Qin Terra-cotta Warriors Museum. The overall findings of this study indicated that tourism motivation influences tourism satisfaction, which in turn influences revisit intention. However, service satisfaction had no effect on revisit intention. Furthermore, while overall travel constraints were found to have a negative impact on tourism satisfaction, intrapersonal constraints had a negative impact on service satisfaction and commentary/knowledge satisfaction. Academically, this research helps to clarify constraints in improving tourism satisfaction and revisiting cultural heritage sites. In other words, the stronger the tourism constraints, the less likely people are to return to cultural heritage sites. This study's findings were also practically useful for developing marketing strategies that included tourism constraints to increase revisit intention.

Bronze Weapons of the Qin Terracotta Warriors: Standardisation, Craft Specialisation and Labour Organization by Xiuzhen Li

Bronze Weapons of the Qin Terracotta Warriors: Standardisation, Craft Specialisation and Labour Organization by Xiuzhen Li

Investigating the composition and application of an ancient multipurpose material discovered on the Qin Terracotta Army statues

AbstractFor the first time, the composition and application of a multipurpose material, which is widely used on the Qin Terracotta Army statues, was investigated as an important material during the statues' production. X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry, X‐ray diffraction spectrometry, polarizing microscopy and gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry were used in this study. The analyses revealed that this material consists of a protein binder containing animal glue and egg and inorganic fillers of ground pottery grains. The material is multifunctional and can be mainly used for bonding and flattening statues, while adding inorganic fillers into organic materials provides good strength and ageing resistance. This study will enhance the current understanding of the production of the Terracotta Army and provide a new perspective for conservation science from traditional crafts.

Artificial chimeric exosomes for anti-phagocytosis and targeted cancer therapy.

Development of exosome-based delivery systems is still facing some formidable challenges, including the lack of standardized isolation and purification methods, non-large-scale production and low drug-loading efficiency. Inspired by biomimetic technologies, we turned to the design of artificial chimeric exosomes (ACEs) constructed by integrating cell membrane proteins from multiple cell types into synthetic phospholipid bilayers. For benchmarking, hybrid membrane proteins derived from red blood cells (RBCs) and MCF-7 cancer cells were selected as models. The resulting ACEs were engineered much like "Emperor Qin's Terra-Cotta Warriors", simultaneously equipped with armor (anti-phagocytosis capability from RBCs) and dagger-axes (homologous targeting ability from cancer cells). ACEs demonstrated higher tumor accumulation, lower interception and better antitumor therapeutic effect than plain liposomes in vivo, alongside large-scale standardized preparation, stable structure, high drug-loading capacity and custom-tailored functionality, highlighting the suitability of ACEs as promising alternatives of exosomes in clinical applications.

Ink marks, bronze crossbows and their implications for the Qin Terracotta Army

At the heart of bureaucratic practice during Warring States and early Imperial China were regular, small acts of accountancy in which objects and people were marked so that their movements could be kept track of, their quality checked and their numbers marshalled. In the mausoleum complex of the Qin Shihuang (259-210 bc, the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty), the longer texts and shorter inscribed marks found on the bronze weapons of the Terracotta Army are reasonably well known, and such information helps us to understand aspects of Qin craft organisation and logistics at this crucial period of Chinese state formation. This paper’s modest starting point is a study of two further, less well-known ink inscriptions found on crossbow triggers from Terracotta Army Pit 1. Using multispectral photography, digital microscopy and Raman analysis, we uncover evidence of further marks on the same two triggers that suggest a similar pattern of ‘matching’ marks as suggested by the incised evidence. We also identify the black substance used to make the marks as a soot-based ink. Spatial analysis of both the inked and incised trigger marks then provides wider context for how such marking practices amongst Qin bronze-workers may have operated.

Bridged siloxanes as novel potential hybrid consolidants for ancient Qin terracotta

Comparing to the research work on the polychromy protection of Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army, the protection of the terracotta body itself is somewhat being overlooked. But a very recent survey organized by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of China shows that the water erosion and salt damage of ancient potteries, including terracotta, are more obvious than previous thoughts. In this work, the protective performances on simulated Qin terracotta samples of two bridged siloxanes with various alkyl bridge groups, bis(triethoxysilyl) ethane and bis(triethoxysilyl) octane, are investigated and compared with tetraethoxysilane and triethoxyoctylsilane. Influences on the porosity and pore size distribution, morphology, physical properties, color alteration and capillary water absorption of untreated and treated terracotta samples are carefully examined. The accelerated freeze-thaw and salt crystallization aging tests are further carried out to evaluate the resistance to aging after protection treatment. The results indicate that both bridged siloxanes show great potential in terracotta consolidation.

Marking practices and the making of the Qin Terracotta Army

A striking feature of Qin material culture (770–210BC) in ancient China is the frequency with which it preserves stamped, incised or painted marks with a variety of Chinese characters, numerals or symbols. In a general sense, such repeated mark-making was an administrative strategy that enabled Qin administrators to mobilise people, raw materials and finished goods in vast bulk, subject to careful quality and quantity control, and archaeologically, this strategy is nowhere more obvious than in the manufacturing feat constituted by Emperor Qin Shihuang’s mausoleum and his Terracotta Army. This study considers the production marks associated with both the terracotta warriors and their accompanying bronze weapons from a new perspective. We compare and contrast the marking practices on these two very different kinds of artefacts, devoting close attention to what this implies about workshop organisation or the operational sequences behind their manufacture. We also assess the location of such signs on their parent objects as well as their wider spatial distribution across the pit as a whole, ultimately with a view to understanding craft organisation and project logistics during this crucial early phase of empire-building in China.

Energy Analysis of Relics Museum Buildings

Abstract With an increase of building energy consumption, the requirement of building energy conservation becomes a key importance of national energy development. It's not feasible to apply the traditional method to predict and analyze energy consumption in relics museums like the Emperor Qin's Terra-Cotta Warriors and Horses Museum at Xi’an City, China, due to the particularities of soil and building structures. This paper uses commercial software DeST to analyze the building energy consumption by estimating building cooling and heating loads hourly. The single factor method is used to analyze the affection of load influential factors and the average unit change value and rate method is used to analyze the factor levels. The predicted results show that the simulated building possesses considerable energy saving potential. In addition, the significance of various loading impact factors is further discussed.

Analysis of polychromy binder on Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Warriors by immunofluorescence microscopy

Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Warriors is one of the major discoveries in the archaeological history of the world. It has become a key issue to identify the composition of polychrome binder of Qin's terracotta warriors in understanding their traditional painting technology and deterioration mechanism to provide conservation strategies. Previous instrumental analysis proposed that the binder in Qin's polychrome samples might be egg. In this work, specific fluorescence, generated by the ovalbumin antibody-egg white interaction was observed on Qin's samples under immunofluorescence microscopy (IFM). Our results demonstrate how specific and sensitive the IFM method is to analyze the organic substances in precious artworks.

Bacillus bingmayongensis sp. nov., isolated from the pit soil of Emperor Qin’s Terra-cotta warriors in China

A Bacillus-like isolate, strain FJAT-13831(T), isolated from the No. 1 pit soil of Emperor Qin's Terra-cotta Warriors in Xi'an City, China, was studied to determine its taxonomic status. Dominant fatty acids of this organism included iso-C15:0, iso-C17:0, C16:0, iso-C13:0, anteiso-C15:0, and iso-C17:1ω5c. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis confirmed the affiliation of this isolate to the genus Bacillus and indicated that it was closely related to Bacillus pseudomycoides DSM 12442(T) (99.72 % similarity). A phylogenetic analysis of the gyrB gene sequence similarities exhibited independent clustering of the isolate FJAT-13831(T) and showed 93.8 % (<95 %) sequence similarity with its closest phylogenetic neighbour B. pseudomycoides DSM 12442(T). Separate standing of the strain FJAT-13831(T) was supported by a whole genome-based phylogenetic analysis with an average nucleotide identity value of 91.47 (<95 %) between isolate FJAT-13831(T) and B. pseudomycoides DSM 12442(T) and was consistent with the results of DNA-DNA hybridization (69.1 % relatedness). These findings support the conclusion that the isolate FJAT-13831(T) represents a novel species, for which the name Bacillus bingmayongensis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is FJAT-13831(T) (= CGMCC 1.12043(T) = DSM 25427(T)).

Genome Sequence of the Aerobic Bacterium Bacillus sp. Strain FJAT-13831

Bacillus sp. strain FJAT-13831 was isolated from the no. 1 pit soil of Emperor Qin's Terracotta Warriors in Xi'an City, People's Republic of China. The isolate showed a close relationship to the Bacillus cereus group. The draft genome sequence of Bacillus sp. FJAT-13831 was 4,425,198 bp in size and consisted of 5,567 genes (protein-coding sequences [CDS]) with an average length of 782 bp and a G+C value of 36.36%.

Design for a Novel Electric Sightseeing Car Body

Under the dual pressures of the energy crisis and environmental protection, electric cars have been actively developed. Aiming at the classical attractions of China, an antique-style electric sightseeing cars was designed through studying the body shape design principles and understanding the basic structure of the electric sightseeing cars. Its 3D modeling was designed by UG software. The electric sightseeing cars have the art features of the Qin Terracotta Warriors and copper vehicle and could adapt to the corresponding attraction, and have a high practical value.

Winter and Summer Characteristics of Airborne Particles Inside Emperor Qin's Terra-Cotta Museum, China: A Study by Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

Day- and nighttime total suspended particulate matter was collected inside and outside Emperor Qin's Terra-Cotta Museum in winter and summer 2008. The purpose was to characterize the winter and summer differences of indoor airborne particles in two display halls with different architectural and ventilation conditions, namely the Exhibition Hall and Pit No. 1. The morphology and elemental composition of two season samples were investigated using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. It is found that the particle size, particle mass concentration, and particle type were associated with the visitor numbers in the Exhibition Hall and with the natural ventilation in Pit No. 1 in both winter and summer. Evident winter and summer changes in the composition and physicochemical properties of the indoor suspended particulate matters were related to the source emission and the meteorological conditions. Particle mass concentrations in both halls were higher in winter than in summer. In winter, the size of the most abundant particles at the three sites were all between 0.5 and 1.0 microm, whereas in summer the peaks were all located at less than 0.5 microm. The fraction of sulfur-containing particles was 2-7 times higher in winter than in summer. In addition to the potential soiling hazard, the formation and deposition of sulfur-containing particles in winter may lead to the chemical and physical weathering of the surfaces of the terra-cotta statues.

Chemical Composition of Indoor and Outdoor Atmospheric Particles at Emperor Qin's Terra-cotta Museum, Xi’an, China

Indoor particles and microclimate were measured in summer (August 2004) and winter (January 2005) periods inside and outside Emperor Qin's Terra-Cotta Museum in Xi’an, China. Indoor temperature ranged from 21.9°C to 32.4°C in summer and from 0°C to 5.3°C in winter. Relative humidity varied from 56% to 80% in summer and from 48% to 78% in winter. The number concentrations of particles were lower (0.3–1.0 μm) in summer, and were higher (1.0–7.0 μm) in winter. The average indoor PM2.5 and TSP concentrations were 108.4 ± 30.3 μg/m 3 and 172.4 ± 46.5 μg/m 3 in summer and were 242.3 ± 189.0 μg/m 3 and 312.5 ± 112.8 μg/m 3 in winter, respectively. Sulfate, organic matter, and geological material dominated indoor PM2.5, followed by ammonium, nitrate, and elemental carbon. Several milligram of sulfate particles can deposited in the museum per square meter each year based on the dry deposition estimate. High concentrations of acidic particles suspended inside the museum and their depositions have high risk for the erosion of the terra-cotta figures.

Inscriptions, filing, grinding and polishing marks on the bronze weapons from the Qin Terracotta Army in China

This paper is concerned with the inscriptions and finishing marks present on the surfaces of the thousands of bronze weapons recovered together with the Terracotta Army at the mausoleum complex of Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor of China (259–210BC). After utilising the textual information from the inscriptions to reconstruct aspects of labour organisation and political control during the production of the weapons, the work concentrates on documenting and explaining the techniques employed to produce the inscriptions, to file casting imperfections, and to obtain the smooth, shiny and sharp finish still noticeable on many of the weapons. Silicone rubber impressions of surface features of swords, lances, crossbow triggers and arrows were examined under the scanning electron microscope (SEM), and these observations were supplemented with examination of the artefacts under the stereomicroscope and the SEM. The evidence indicates the use of a variety of chisels for making the inscriptions, and of files for removing excess metal from surfaces. In addition, the grinding and polishing marks demonstrate the large-scale, systematic use of rotary wheels to achieve an ideal final polish. These findings are contextualised in the broader history of Chinese metallurgy, with special attention to the emergence of iron tools and of rotary mechanical devices.

UV-induced polymerization of urushiol. II: Effects of hydrogenation degree of urushiol on surface morphology

There are a large number of lacquer-coated, excavated cultural treasures in China, e.g. Qin Terracotta Army. The lacquer film is formed via the laccase-catalyzed polymerization and a coupling reaction on the long aliphatic unsaturated side chain, which requires a long drying period and specific conditions. The protection and restoration of these archaeological findings and the development of new lacquer wares should find a facile way urgently to dry raw lacquer rapidly. Furthermore, to keep lacquer wares’ excellent brilliance, the surface morphology is of much importance. Urushiol, the basis of lacquer, can be cured under UV irradiation within 2 min in the absence of a photoinitiator, which dramatically shortens the drying time. The wrinkled coating with lusterless surfaces, however, was obtained. In this paper, a facile approach was developed to prepare cured urushiol films with glossy smooth surfaces using a high-pressure mercury lamp as a UV source. The C C bonds in the long aliphatic unsaturated side chain of urushiol were hydrogenated for different times, and the effects of hydrogenation degree of urushiol on surface morphology of the UV cured films were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that when hydrogenated for 3 h or more, the percentage of hydrogen element was over 10.43 wt%, the morphology of the UV cured films was transformed from lusterless wrinkling to glossy smooth, and that the UV cured films of urushiol acetate also gave glossy smooth surface.

Microanalysis of Dust Deposition inside Emperor Qin's Terra-Cotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Indoor dust deposition, including long-term (>10 years) deposition, short-term (~0.5 year) deposition, and pigment flake samples from partially restored warriors were collected in Emperor Qin's Terra-cotta Warriors and Horses Museum in Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China. Morphological and elemental analyses of individual particles were performed with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry to investigate their composition and potential to damage the statues. Most of the indoor dust was composed of clay minerals, fly ash, and biogenic particles. Particles in 51.5% of the short-term deposition, and 49.5% of the long-term deposition contained elemental sulfur. Particles which contained sulfur were mostly associated with calcium sulfate in an internally mixed state with clay or quartz. Crystals of calcium sulfate were also found near interconnected pits and cracks on the outer surface of pigment flakes, revealing an acidic chemical reaction between sulfur dioxide and pigment material or deposited particles as the cause of pits and cracks on the statues’ faces.

Atmospheric deterioration of Qin brick in an environmental chamber at Emperor Qin's Terracotta Museum, China

Potential mechanisms for the changing appearance of Qin terracotta was evaluated on simulated bricks with, SO 2, NH 3, O 3, and a NH 3/O 3 mixture for total dosages of 2.2–5.4 ppm-years. Changes in the surface composition and appearance were evaluated with scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM–EDX) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). No observable changes with O 3 exposure were found. Sulfate as sulfur and ammonium as nitrogen increased by 1.2 at% and 0.8 at% of the surface deposit as determined by XPS. O 3 did not have a detectable effect by itself, but when combined with NH 3, NO 3 as nitrogen increased by 1.5 at%, indicating a strong oxidation of NH 3 to nitric acid. The combination of outdoor O 3 infiltration with indoor NH 3, presumably from the visitors, appears to have a greater potential for damage than either pollutant by itself. SEM–EDX mapping of the surface showed sulfur associated with calcium and magnesium compounds after SO 2 exposure, but not before. More detailed microscopic examination showed this primarily in the form of gypsum, especially near cracks and pits in the surface. Both of these mechanisms are probably among the causes of changes in terracotta appearances since they were unearthed in 1974.