Qing Research Articles

Exploration of the rules for the use of organic additives in the mortar of the Forbidden city

The Forbidden City exemplifies the official architecture of the Ming (C.E. 1368–1644) and Qing (C.E. 1644–1911) dynasties in China. The buildings within the Forbidden City adhere to a specific construction system and hierarchy. This study examined the organic additives in eighty-three lime mortar samples collected from the Forbidden City. These mortar samples were categorised into two main groups: garden mortar and construction mortar. The construction mortar was further subdivided into masonry, rendering, tile roof, and pointing mortars. Classical chemical analysis was performed to identify organic residues in the samples, including glutinous rice, sugar, oil, blood, and protein. Additionally, ovalbumin, casein, collagen, and peach gum were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results confirmed historical records regarding to the use of organic additives in ancient mortars. Statistical analysis revealed that the organic additives added to different types of mortars were selected according to the location and function of the mortar. This evidence supports the validity of traditional Chinese composite mortar scientifically. Ancient Chinese artisans adhered to rules aimed at practicality and functional realisation when selecting organic additives.

The Capital Region in the Unfinished Taiping War

Abstract In 1853, a Taiping army infiltrated North China, threatening Beijing and the Qing dynasty itself. Though this army never reached Beijing, its northern siege had acute and lasting impacts on communities in the capital region (jifu 畿輔). Attention to the capital region invites reflection on the temporality and strategic nature of commemoration. Focusing on Cangzhou 滄州, I examine how capital region communities memorialized the northern chapter of the Taiping Civil War, even as for the rest of the empire, the war remained unfinished until 1864. In gazetteers, private histories, and commemorative records, local authors reframed ambiguous realities to write their localities into a story of northern victory, regardless of the fate of the south. The timeline for commemoration in Cangzhou was interrupted, not seamless, and took place over decades. Initially addressed to Beijing and elites along the Grand Canal, Cangzhou's commemorative project was later brought into the orbit of ascendant Tianjin.

The Pragmatic Way: Managing the Streets in Qing Beijing

Drawing upon scholarship from the study of space, social history, and urban history, this article examines the institutional development of street management in Beijing during Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Based on archival sources and private writings about Qing Beijing, this article argues that while the Qing state prescribed a segregated spatial order onto its capital city of Beijing, the practices on the streets were ultimately determined by the constant battle between stagnation and flow. In maintaining the living environment of its imperial capital, Beijing, the Qing state recognized different needs, physically, financially, politically, and administratively, of different people residing and operating in the same urban space. Anchored on an urban history of street management, this article further connects the street concerns to more significant issues about managing the space in the empire and the implications of different priorities for the empire.

Study on digital textile information and 3D virtual simulation of Chinese Qing Dynasty Lu-silk Apron

The Qing Dynasty Lu-silk Apron in the Shanxi Folk Museum is a representative example of the traditional Chinese Apron, with profound cultural and aesthetic connotations regarding pattern type, colour application, and process techniques. Nevertheless, a minimal survey has been done on the Qing Dynasty Lu-silk Apron. The study aimed to discuss the exquisite textile techniques and artistic features of the Qing Dynasty Lu-silk Apron and analyse the social system, humanistic sentiment, cultural symbolism, and intelligent thinking at multiple levels through style types, size analysis, colour interpretation, pattern expression techniques, and skill production. In this article, we also used the popular simulation technology to restore the Qing Dynasty Lu-silk Apron and provide a new way and path to study other ancient costumes.

Translating official documents: an art of governance by translation in the Qing dynasty

State governance is, in many ways, a discursive practice that relies on the creation, translation, and transmission of governance-oriented texts. The act of governance by translation typically occurs in multi-ethnic, multilingual, and unified political contexts. When translation adheres to established patterns and effective regimes, it forms a governance technique known as “translation governmentality.” In the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), confronted with the challenge of governing a vast territory with diverse ethnic groups speaking different languages, the Qing authorities prioritized the translation of official documents to implement this translation governmentality. Despite its significance, a comprehensive overview of official document translation in the Qing dynasty within the framework of governance by translation has not received sufficient attention. This study employs documentary analysis to understand the historical contexts of official document translations, interpret the motivations behind these translations, and reconstruct the organized regimes of translation practices in the Qing period. The findings reveal that the Qing dynasty developed a relatively organized and mature translation regime for official documents by establishing translation agencies, appointing specialized translation officials, and adopting multilingual translation modes. This governance-oriented translation regime effectively shaped the core concepts, institutional systems, and organizational mechanisms of state governance in the Qing dynasty. Additionally, it contributed to establishing the legitimacy of state governance during that era.

Enlightenment through Reading: The Impact of Miscellaneous Books in Folk Education in Huizhou, China

The evolution of folk education in ancient China was inextricably linked with advancing pedagogical methods and educational resources. The introduction of folk enlightenment reading materials, serving as pivotal tools for literacy and vocational training, significantly influenced the landscape of popular education. This transformation was characterized by three main developments: an expansion of the educational demographic, a shift from traditional Confucian curricula to practical, life-oriented content, and the integration of common vocational knowledge, laying the groundwork for professional expertise. The textbook “Four Words in Miscellaneous Characters” ( 四言杂字), a prominent example from the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Huizhou, epitomizes this shift. It reflects the local values of prioritizing agriculture and commerce and the reverence for literacy and culture while documenting essential local practices in marriage, dowry, and medicinal herbs. This text serves as a valuable lens through which to examine the linguistic and cultural norms of the Huizhou region.

Reaffirming Loyalty and Legitimacy: Representations of Hui Multi-Layered Identity in Bai Lian’s “Mountain Pass”

In the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) left many writers severed from their cultural roots. Starting in the 1980s, literary authors sought to address this disconnection by turning their attention to rural communities. This tendency is exemplified by the emergence of two significant trends: root-seeking literature and new fiction from Tibet. Root-seeking authors focused on local customs, marginalized cultures, and minority groups to reinvigorate Chinese literature and fill the perceived cultural void. Around the same time, new fiction from Tibet featured diverse responses to post-Mao changes, with some idealizing Tibet as a repository of “authentic” traditions, while others criticized its perceived backwardness. Both trends have been interpreted in scholarship as responses, often critical, to state policies. The short story “Mountain Pass” (1985) by Hui writer Bai Lian intersects with these movements temporally and thematically. However, unlike them, Bai Lian’s portrayal of rural communities emphasizes the Hui’s historical role in resisting the Qing empire, pivotal to the emergence of the PRC, while also highlighting the group’s Arab and Persian origins. This three-layered identification with the local, national, and transnational enriches our understanding of the 1980s literary landscape, challenging the notion that this era was solely characterized by resistance to the central state.

Tribute VS "Nanman": The Image Construction of "Magic Mirror Type"

For over 2000 years, feudal dynasties throughout China have referred to southerners as the “Nanman” (means Southern Barbarian). However, the specific situation of the treatment of Nanman titles by various dynasties has not been explored. In addition, the Nanman never stopped paying tribute to the Central Dynasty. No one is involved in whether tribute can earn the respect that the dynasty deserves. Nowadays, big data technology can easily handle massive amounts of literature, and it is entirely possible to analyze the above issues from "official histories" (the 25 historical books) using the method of word frequency research. The words frequency shows that since the unification of Lingnan by Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the feudal dynasties presented a paradox to Lingnan: The products in Lingnan were coveted, and local customs were despised. "Tribute" was used to cover up the predatory nature of Kings, and "Nanman" was used to establish political, national and cultural rank. The number of "tribute" and the meaning of "Nanman" formed the "magic mirror" development relationship in the big tree of feudal autocracy until the end of the Qing Dynasty. But on the one hand, the positive factors of "tribute" were absorbed and used by the western powers to establish their own alliances. On the other hand, they also mislead the public opinion and create trouble. Although "Nanman" has been eradicated politically, the regional discrimination and cultural misreading it contains have not been eradicated and often occurs. "Tribute" ranges from Kyushu to overseas to international relations. The connotation of "Nanman" from the orientation, nation and culture, the meaning of these two words has been spontaneously changing. It is timely to clarify their relationship and help make China revive.

An analytical study of the tabia mortar from Lin Yimu’s tomb, Zhejiang, China

The Lin Yimu’s tomb in Zhejiang Province, China, is a significant Qing Dynasty tabia structure that, despite relatively good preservation, has suffered damage from weathering, necessitating urgent restoration. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive scientific analysis of archaeological samples from the tabia of Lin Yimu’s tomb, employing a range of analytical techniques including X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), chemical methods, and measurements of hardness and strength. Analytical results revealed that the main phases of the sample are calcite, quartz, illite/mica, feldspar, with a minor presence of Tung oil. The proportion of calcium carbonate is approximately 27%, and the ratio of earth to sand is 1:2, suggesting a raw material formula mass ratio of lime-earth-sand of 3:4:8. The surface hardness of the sample is measured at 293 ± 15 HL, with a compressive strength of 5.5 ± 0.2 MPa. The sand used in the raw material has a medium particle size of 250 μm, while earth particles are predominantly around 17 μm. The sample exhibits a porosity of 27.5%, with pore sizes concentrated at 95 nm. These findings contribute significantly to our understanding of Qing dynasty tomb construction technologies and provide a solid scientific basis for the restoration of such historical sites.

From the Mandate of Heaven to the modern state: the nation according to Wei Xiaobao

Abstract This paper analyzes the Jin Yong novel The Deer and the Cauldron through the lens of Etienne Balibar's theory of super-nationalism and supranationalism. The novel employs a pan-Asian racial ideology to expand national identity from Han Chinese to other ethnic groups (supranationalism) by introducing a racial Other, white Europeans, to unify warring groups. Simultaneously, Han culture is consistently uplifted as superior (super-nationalism). A critical sequence features the Kangxi Emperor asserting his legitimacy as the ruler of China to the protagonist Wei Xiaobao by claiming the Mandate of Heaven has passed from the Ming to the Qing dynasty. However, Han Chinese gallants and intellectuals constantly challenge his legitimacy because, as a Manchu, he is considered foreign. To resolve this issue, Wei Xiaobao begins constructing a racial national framework that includes Manchus. This paper further argues that Wei Xiaobao's moral relativism, unusual for a protagonist in martial arts fiction, enables the flexibility to redefine Chinese identity on racial grounds instead of moral or cultural. The Deer and the Cauldron illustrates the transition from the Mandate of Heaven to modern nation-state ideology in China, in the form of an irreverent martial arts fiction novel, crafted by the genre's greatest master.

The Spatial Form of the Traditional Residences of Shanxi Merchants: A Case Study of Pingyao Ancient City, China

The Shanxi merchants were one of the top ten merchant groups in Chinese history. From the Ming and Qing Dynasties to the Republic of China, they contributed significantly to the prosperity of China’s financial industry while also developing traditional residences adapted to the local living environment. Nevertheless, current research lacks a thorough investigation into how Shanxi merchant culture influenced the spatial forms of these residences. This study aimed to analyze the spatial forms of three types of Shanxi merchant residences in Pingyao Ancient City through a case study approach, exploring the factors influencing their spatial forms and their relationship with local culture. The focus is on how the shop residence, workshop residence, and courtyard residence types reflect the interplay between commercial activities and the sociocultural background through their spatial arrangements. The findings indicate a high degree of integration between commercial and residential functions, highlighting the profound impact of Shanxi merchant culture on social hierarchy and family structure. This research provides new insights into the spatial forms of Shanxi merchant residences, offering implications for the adaptive reuse of residences in modern urban planning and architectural design, as well as providing a theoretical basis and reference for the preservation and regeneration of architectural heritage.

Interpretation and Gene Extraction of Typical Patterns in Palace Costumes of the Mid Qing Dynasty

This article explores in depth the characteristics of typical patterns in mid Qing dynasty palace costumes, the problems in gene extraction, and optimization strategies. Firstly, it provides a detailed analysis of the typical pattern characteristics of mid Qing dynasty palace costumes from three aspects: pattern types and composition features, cultural and symbolic meanings, and production techniques and technological inheritance. The second point is to point out the problems faced in the process of pattern gene extraction, and propose optimization measures such as strengthening data organization and protection, deepening gene extraction and interpretation, and promoting the integration of inheritance and innovation. The aim is to provide theoretical support and practical guidance for the protection and inheritance of the pattern genes of palace costumes in the mid Qing Dynasty.

Confucian culture, public education expenditure, and economic growth

Confucian culture has been found to have significant effects on economic outcomes, yet current studies seldom delve into its impact on regional economic growth in China and the role of government behavior as a mechanism. From the perspective of government response to public demands for education, this paper examines whether Confucian culture fosters economic growth by driving up public education expenditure. Using panel data at the prefecture-level over 2003–2018 and taking the historical population density of jinshi in the Ming and Qing Dynasties as the proxy of the Confucian culture, the empirical analysis is done mainly through pooled OLS and IV analysis. Results show that Confucian culture has a significant and positive effect on economic growth, which can be partially explained by its positive influence on public education expenditure. The channel still holds after controlling human capital in regression. Further discussion of the clan culture and local governors’ cultural backgrounds suggests that higher public education expenditure results from the local government’s passive response to public demands for education. Thus, local governments are suggested to widen and improve the channels for expressing public demands and increase public education expenditure while balancing public demands and the need to boost economic growth.

Ethnic Boundaries and Identity Fluidity of Bannermen and Civilians in the Qing Dynasty

Abstract The Qing dynasty enforced a policy of separate governance for the people of the Eight Banners, ruling that bannermen were neither to be administered under the regular civilian administrative system, nor listed on the civilian register. Institutionally and legally, the labels “Banner” (qi 旗) and “civilian” (min 民) marked a fundamental divide between different social groups in the Qing. However, in actual practice, the boundary between the two was less rigid. An ambiguous area existed within the seemingly strict legal and administrative regime, providing opportunists with an abundance of loopholes to exploit. Some changed their status from “civilian commoner” to “bannermen” to acquire land, while others moved from “bannermen” status to “civilian commoner” status to pursue promotion in the civil service. Shedding light on the everyday lives of these people, this article delves into the intricate Banner–civilian classification of the Qing dynasty, with a focus on the overlapping area between the parallel systems. It aims to rectify the conventional binary perspective that strictly dichotomizes Banner and civilian status. By doing so, it highlights the multifaceted nature and diversity inherent in Qing ethnic relations and local society.

Laws of the Land: Fengshui and the State in Qing Dynasty China by Tristan G. Brown (review)

Laws of the Land: Fengshui and the State in Qing Dynasty China by Tristan G. Brown (review)

Domestic Space Structure and Abandonment Behavior: The Ye Family Complex at Baomei, Tong An District (Fujian, P.R. China)

Anthropological archaeology strives to recover, understand and explain past social dynamics. It relies on the uncovered material record to highlight past behavior patterns. For such a research agenda to be successful, one needs to fully understand all aspects of the processes involved in the formation of the archaeological record. It is undisputed that “Abandonment” is the condition _sine qua none_ for the formation of archaeological sites. Fieldwork conducted at the Ye Family high ranking Qing Dynasty office-holder housing complex, outlines the “use-history” of the investigated architectural complex and its adjustment to China recent contemporary history. The housing complex shifted from an initial prestigious imperial office-holder family to a “commune” housing for disadvantaged families during the cultural revolution, to be finally either progressively abandoned and/or re-cycled as storage complex. Combining informant input and field archaeology methodologies, the study of an abandoned elite traditional vernacular house provides the opportunity to decipher abandonment processes and contribute to the theoretical agenda of anthropological archaeology.

Sagang Sechen, The Precious Summary. A History of the Mongols from Chinggis Khan to the Qing Dynasty. Translated by Johan Elverskog. New York, Columbia University Press 2023

Sagang Sechen, The Precious Summary. A History of the Mongols from Chinggis Khan to the Qing Dynasty. Translated by Johan Elverskog. New York, Columbia University Press 2023

Care of the Self or Pursuit of a Better World? The Transformation of Vegetarianism in Yiguandao Discourses from the Late Qing Period to the Global COVID-19 Pandemic

Care of the Self or Pursuit of a Better World? The Transformation of Vegetarianism in Yiguandao Discourses from the Late Qing Period to the Global COVID-19 Pandemic

Analysis of the story of St. Joseph in books of Chinese western learnings of the Ming and Qing Dynasties: Focusing on Dias’ Sheng Ruose xing shi

Analysis of the story of St. Joseph in books of Chinese western learnings of the Ming and Qing Dynasties: Focusing on Dias’ Sheng Ruose xing shi

Financial Innovation in East-West Trade in Ming and Qing Dynasties

Financial Innovation in East-West Trade in Ming and Qing Dynasties