Qilian Mountains Research Articles

Genetic diversity of Bartonella species in small mammals in the Qinghai Menyuan section of Qilian Mountain National Park, China

Bartonella are vector-borne gram-negative facultative intracellular bacteria that can infect a wide spectrum of mammals, and are recognized as emerging human pathogens. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and molecular characteristics of Bartonella infections in small mammals within the Qinghai Menyuan section of Qilian Mountain National Park, China. Small mammals were captured, and the liver, spleen and kidney were collected for Bartonella detection and identification using a combination of real-time PCR targeting the transfer-mRNA (ssrA) gene and followed by sequencing of the citrate synthase (gltA) gene. A total of 52 rodents were captured, and 36 rodents were positive for Bartonella, with a positivity rate of 69.23% (36/52). Bartonella was detected in Cricetulus longicaudatus, Microtus oeconomus, Mus musculus, and Ochotona cansus. The positivity rate was significantly different in the different habitats. Two Bartonella species were observed, including Bartonella grahamii and Bartonella heixiaziensis, and B. grahamii was the dominant epidemic strain in this area. Phylogenetic analysis showed that B. grahamii mainly clustered into two clusters, which were closely related to the Apodemus isolates from China and Japan and the local plateau pika isolates, respectively. In addition, genetic polymorphism analysis showed that B. grahamii had high genetic diversity, and its haplotype had certain regional differences and host specificity. Overall, high prevalence of Bartonella in small mammals in the Qinghai Menyuan section of Qilian Mountain National Park. B. grahamii is the dominant strain with high genetic diversity and potential pathogenicity to humans, and corresponding control measures should be considered.

Winter Grazing, Not Fencing or Unicast, Promotes Stability of Microbial Community and Function in the Qilian Mountains of Qinghai‐Xizang Plateau

ABSTRACTIn alpine meadows, microorganisms are essential to sustain the stability of terrestrial geochemical processes and vegetation–soil–microbial systems. The present study in order investigate how various management measures impact the microbial communities' composition and functionality, we utilize metagenomic sequencing techniques to examinate the composition and function of soil microbial communities in the southern Qilian Mountains of the Qinghai‐Xizang Plateau in response to the management practices of fencing enclose (FE), winter grazing (WG), transition zone between natural and artificial grasslands (TZ), and artificial unicast oats (AU). Vegetation diversity and soil physicochemical characteristics were dramatically altered by the management measures. The prokaryotic community structure was considerably similar in FE and WG, as well as in TZ and AU. Near‐natural (FE) and artificial establishment (AU) disturbances changed the fungal community structure. Enzymes related to carbon metabolism did not respond significantly to the management measures, whereas those related to nitrogen metabolism did not respond significantly in TZ and AU. The relative abundance of enzymes participating in nitrogen metabolism was higher under TZ and AU than under FE and WG. We concluded that grassland management measures altered the structure of aboveground graminoid and leguminous vegetation communities and belowground biomass allocation, resulting in changes in K uptake, causing striking changes in the structure of fungal communities and nitrogen‐metabolizing enzymes; moderate disturbance (WG) was beneficial for maintaining the stability of microbial communities in alpine grasslands.

The impact of cryosphere service change on the social-ecological systems resilience: Evidence from the Qilian Mountains Area in China

Research on changes in cryosphere services is crucial for the responsible management of cryospheric resources and for fostering sustainable development in Social-Ecological Systems (SESs) impacted by the cryosphere. While previous research has primarily focused on quantifying cryospheric change through Cryosphere Service Value (CSV), the impact of cryosphere service change on Social-Ecological Systems Resilience (SESR) remains unclear. This study considers the Qilian Mountains as a cryosphere system and assesses the changes in its service value from 2000 to 2020. It also establishes a framework to analyze the spatial-temporal variations in resilience within the Qilian Mountains Area in China (QMAC) and investigates the impact of changes in cryosphere services on SESR. The findings indicate that (1) the CSV exhibited a decreasing trend followed by an increase from 2000 to 2020, with minor increases observed in the three northern inland river basins and substantial increases in other areas; (2) the resilience in QMAC improved consistently, establishing a spatial pattern characterized by higher resilience in the west and lower resilience in the east, as well as higher resilience in the north and lower resilience in the south; (3) the effects of changes in cryosphere services on SESR demonstrate significant spatial-temporal patterns, the decline in climate regulation service has a notably negative impact on ecological resilience, while the increase in value from aesthetic appreciation and tourism service positively boosts economic resilience; and (4) changes in cryosphere services affect social resilience by influencing residents’ livelihoods, with more pronounced effects on SESs in areas with high land use intensity. This research provides a research avenue for examining how cryosphere service change impacts SESR and offers practical experience for promoting the stability of SESs and developing sustainable development policies in regions affected by the global high-mountain cryosphere amid climate change.

Different characteristics of the soil in marmot habitats might be one of the factors that influcting Yersinia pestis prevalent in which than pikas

IntroductionMarmots are recognized as host animals for plague caused by Yersinia pestis infection. It is unclear that why plague prevalent in marmot rather than other rodents like pikas in the same habitats. This study aims to analyze the differences of the soil characteristics around marmots and pikas burrows to explore the soils factors impacting on different epidemic intensities of Yersinia pestis in these two rodents.MethodsSoil samples were collected from within and around marmot and pika burrows, as well as from the nearby areas not inhabited by them and Chinese baseline soil properties as control groups, in the Qilian Mountains of Gansu Province, China. The physicochemical properties and the bacterial 16S rRNA were measured to analyze the characteristics of soils from different groups. Subsequently, the data were analyzed using R studio.ResultsThe analysis revealed that marmot habitats exhibited distinct soil characteristics, including lower organic matter and alkaline hydrolyzed nitrogen, but higher electrical conductivity and total soluble salts. And soil in marmot areas tended to have higher concentrations of nickel, chromium, and iron, also lower levels of zinc and selenium. Additionally, the alpha diversity of soil microorganisms in marmot habitats was significantly low. Simultaneously, redundancy analysis was conducted, which showed that the low alpha diversity of marmot-soil was influenced by its physicochemical properties. The alpha diversity of the soil was positively correlated with EC, TSS, Na, and Cr, etc., while it was negatively correlated with AHN, OM, Se, Zn, and Fe, etc.ConclusionThese characteristics in marmot habitats, including low levels of organic matter, alkaline hydrolyzed nitrogen, zinc, selenium, and bacterial alpha diversity, as well as high levels of electrical conductivity, total soluble salts, iron, and nickel, played a crucial role in the spread of plague. It was discovered that the unique characteristics of marmot-soils provided essential elements necessary for the survival of Yersinia pestis, including high levels of Fe and Ca, or facilitated the spread of plague. Thus, the transmission of the plague was facilitated.

Finer topographic data improves distribution modeling of Picea crassifolia in the northern Qilian Mountains

Finer topographic data improves distribution modeling of Picea crassifolia in the northern Qilian Mountains

Precipitation reconstructions in the northern and southern Qilian Mountains based on tree rings of Picea crassifolia

Precipitation reconstructions in the northern and southern Qilian Mountains based on tree rings of Picea crassifolia

Predicting Gross Primary Productivity under Future Climate Change for the Tibetan Plateau Based on Convolutional Neural Networks

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is vital for ecosystems and the global carbon cycle, serving as a sensitive indicator of ecosystems’ responses to climate change. However, the impact of future climate changes on GPP in the Tibetan Plateau, an ecologically important and climatically sensitive region, remains underexplored. This study aimed to develop a data-driven approach to predict the seasonal and annual variations in GPP in the Tibetan Plateau up to the year 2100 under changing climatic conditions. A convolutional neural network (CNN) was employed to investigate the relationships between GPP and various environmental factors, including climate variables, CO2 concentrations, and terrain attributes. This study analyzed the projected seasonal and annual GPP from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) under four future scenarios: SSP1–2.6, SSP2–4.5, SSP3–7.0, and SSP5–8.5. The results suggest that the annual GPP is expected to significantly increase throughout the 21st century under all future climate scenarios. By 2100, the annual GPP is projected to reach 1011.98 Tg C, 1032.67 Tg C, 1044.35 Tg C, and 1055.50 Tg C under the four scenarios, representing changes of 0.36%, 4.02%, 5.55%, and 5.67% relative to 2021. A seasonal analysis indicates that the GPP in spring and autumn shows more pronounced growth under the SSP3–7.0 and SSP5–8.5 scenarios due to the extended growing season. Furthermore, the study identified an elevation band between 3000 and 4500 m that is particularly sensitive to climate change in terms of the GPP response. Significant GPP increases would occur in the east of the Tibetan Plateau, including the Qilian Mountains and the upper reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. These findings highlight the pivotal role of climate change in driving future GPP dynamics in this region. These insights not only bridge existing knowledge gaps regarding the impact of future climate change on the GPP of the Tibetan Plateau over the coming decades but also provide valuable guidance for the formulation of climate adaptation strategies aimed at ecological conservation and carbon management.

Projected evolution of the Qiyi Glacier in the Qilian Mountains using the PyGEM with the calibration of glaciological mass balance

Owing to glacial retreat and associated future runoff variations, major concerns have been raised over the sustainability of water resources in the Qilian Mountains. Based on the Python Glacier Evolution Model, we present projections of the Qiyi glacier for shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) calibrated with the glaciological mass balance. The results indicate the air temperature as the dominant factor in the continuous mass loss of the Qiyi Glacier in the future. Glacier area and volume are projected to decline to 0.16 ± 0.11 km2 (6.4% ± 4.4%, relative to 2015) and 0.0023 ± 0.0006 km³ (2.1% ± 1.5%, relative to 2015), respectively, by 2100, for SSP1-2.6. For SSP5-8.5, the glacier will disappear by 2088. The mass loss of the Qiyi Glacier will accelerate before 2050 for all SSPs but will decelerate after 2050 for SSP1-2.6 and SSP2-4.5. The peak water of glacier runoff will occur between 2034 and 2045, with the duration of high water from 7 to 18 years. Thereafter, the runoff will rapidly decline till 2070–2080 and remain low afterward. Compared with the existing projections, the present projections indicate that the Qiyi Glacier will experience more drastic shrinkage and ice loss in the coming decades. Finally, the glacier runoff is expected to reach its peak water earlier with a shorter duration of high water.

Morphological variation of endemic Gymnocypris chilianensis (Cyprinidae) collected from three inland water systems in Qilian Mountains, China

To explore the morphological differences among different geographic populations of Gymnocypris chilianensis, 29 measurable traits and 13 landmarks on 191 individuals of 10 geographic populations were collected from three different inland water systems, i.e., Shiyang River, Heihe River, and Shule River, in Qilian Mountains, China. Multivariate statistical methods were used to compare morphological differences among the populations, such as principal component analysis, cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and visual analysis of landmark data. The results showed that: (1) There were significant morphological differences between groups of G. chilianensis. The Shiyang River basin differs significantly from populations in the other two basins. (2) The inter-population differences were mainly reflected in the length of the trunk and tail, and the difference between trunk and caudal fin had the most obvious characteristics, proving the tail being the main direction of variation. This research provides an effective theoretical basis for the fine management and accurate protection of G. chilianensis germplasm resources.

Water resource safety assessment of the Hexi inland river of China based on the PSR model

ABSTRACT The Hexi Corridor is located in northwest China, and its water resources mainly rely on meltwater from the Qilian Mountains and limited precipitation. The Hexi Corridor is an important regional population center and grain production area. However, limited rainfall restricts regional development due to inadequate water resources. Assessing water resource security in the Hexi region and providing targeted recommendations are crucial for rational planning and utilization of water resources, protecting the ecological environment, and promoting development. This study employs the entropy weight method to construct a pressure-state-response (PSR) system, assessing the water resource security of various river basins in the Hexi inland area. The evaluation results indicate that since the 21st century, the comprehensive water resource security scores of the three river basins have shown an upward trend. Specifically, the economic and social systems of the Shule River Basin and Heihe River Basin are improving, while their natural systems are declining; all three systems in the Shiyang River Basin are improving. Based on these results, targeted recommendations for different areas are proposed, providing a basis for enhancing water resource security in the region.

Ecosystem service value and ecological compensation in Qilian Mountain National Park: Implications for ecological conservation strategies

Qilian Mountain National Park (QMNP) is a critical ecological barrier and water conservation area in northwestern China. Its diverse ecosystems provide significant ecosystem services, yet the valuation of these services and their dynamic responses to land use/cover (LULC) changes and ecological protection measures require detailed investigation. This study employs an improved equivalent factor method, tailored to the specific ecosystem types and LULC patterns of QMNP, to evaluate the ecosystem service value (ESV) across different LULC types. Using an elasticity analysis model, the sensitivity of ESV to LULC changes from 1990 to 2022 was quantitatively assessed. The results indicate that the ESV of QMNP increased from 46.13 billion RMB to 50.97 billion RMB between 1990 and 2022, mostly due to the growth of grassland and forest areas. The primary route for increasing the region’s ESV is the conversion of desert to grassland, and this should be a major area of emphasis for next ecological conservation initiatives. Regulating services form the core of the ESV in QMNP, with climate and hydrological regulation contributing significantly to the overall ESV. Maintaining the stability of forest, wetland, and water body areas is crucial for sustaining the total ESV of QMNP. Through the application of carbon emission coefficients and ESV methods, the average range for long-term ecological compensation standards in QMNP is expected to be between 3.78 billion RMB and 28.28 billion RMB annually. Additionally, we explore the impacts of ongoing ecological protection mechanisms on enhancing ESV. There is a pressing need to formulate integrated policy frameworks that balance ecological conservation with sustainable economic development. The study also highlights the necessity of strengthening the protection and foundational research of grasslands and water bodies to enhance the ESV of QMNP. These insights serve as a foundation for potential planning and management strategies in QMNP, aiming to maintain and enhance its ecosystem functions and services, thereby contributing to broader regional and global ecological stability.

Characteristics of soil microplastics and ecological risks in the Qilian Mountains region, Northeast Tibetan Plateau

Microplastics (MPs) pollution has become a vital global environmental issue. However, comprehensive understanding of the ecological risks of MPs in soils of Northeast Tibetan Plateau still requires further study. In this study, we used the Agilent 8700 Laser Direct Infrared (LDIR) spectroscopy to analyze the characteristics of 10–1000 μm MPs in soils of different vegetation types throughout the Qilian Mountains basin, and to comprehensively explore the ecological risks of MPs in various ecological environments. The results indicate that MPs abundance is highest in soil of shrub areas (26,369 ± 32,147 items kg−1-dry weight (dw)), followed by woodland (22,215 ± 22,544 items kg−1-dw), desert (17,769 ± 9,040 items kg−1-dw), grassland (16,462 ± 12,872 items kg−1-dw), and forest (15,662 ± 13,857 items kg−1-dw). MPs in soils of different vegetation types show similar physical and chemical characteristics, with the shape dominated by fragments (93%–96%), followed by fibers and a few beads, with dominant sizes of 10–30 μm (63%–76%), and polymers dominated by polyamide (PA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Additionally, the environmental risks posed by the fundamental characteristics of MPs have been quantified through the Pollution Load Index (PLI), Pollution Hazard Index (PHI), and Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) models. According to the PLI assessment, the current levels of MPs in the environment have not yet imposed significant burdens on the ecosystem. However, the results of PHI and PERI indicate a higher risk of MPs pollution in the Qilian Mountains. This study offers vital information for MPs pollution in the whole Qilian Mountains regions and their potential environmental risks in remote areas’ soil.

Mesoscale soil moisture measurements along the rover route using the mobile cosmic-ray neutron sensing in the eastern Tibetan Plateau

Water resources in the soil play an essential role in hydrological processes and ecosystem functions on the Tibetan Plateau. However, accurately measuring soil moisture distribution in this region presents challenges due to the diverse ecosystem types, complex terrain, and harsh environmental conditions. In this study, we introduce an approach for estimating mesoscale soil moisture in the Qilian Mountains (QLM) region of the eastern Tibetan Plateau using a cosmic-ray neutron rover. Soil moisture estimates derived from neutron count rates, newly adjusted by vegetation effects, demonstrated good agreement with soil moisture measurements obtained through soil sampling at 26 calibration sites across the region (RMSE = 0.025 g g−1). The calibration parameter N0_NDVI was 443 cpm in the QLM. Utilizing NDVI as vegetation correction method showed potential improvements in the accuracy of converting neutron counts to soil moisture across the diverse mountainous ecosystem types. The newly developed calibration equation provided a high-precision, high spatial resolution soil moisture transect across various landscapes measured by the rover. The average mesoscale soil moisture along the rover route varied by ecosystem types, with values of 0.10 g/g in deserts, 0.17 g/g in grasslands, 0.13 g/g in forests, 0.18 g/g in subalpine shrublands, and 0.20 g/g in croplands. Land cover types emerged as crucial determinants of mesoscale soil moisture variability in the QLM region. These findings offer valuable mesoscale soil moisture data and new insights into soil water information at the transect scale across diverse ecosystem types in the Tibetan Plateau.

Water Niche Characteristics of Subalpine Shrub in Eastern Qilian Mountains, China

ABSTRACTThe investigation and research of plant niche provide new ideas for understanding the extent of resource utilization by plants and the coexistence relationship among species. Taking the subalpine shrub plants in the eastern Qilian Mountains as the research object, the contribution rate of each potential water source to the shrub plants was estimated using the Bayesian mixed modelling (MixSIAR), and the spatial and temporal characteristics of their water niche were analysed quantitatively using Levins' niche breadth index and Pianka's niche overlap index. The results showed that shrub plants on the semi‐shady slope exhibited larger water niche breadth and overlap compared to those on the semi‐sunny slope, which indicated that shrub plants on the semi‐shady slope had strong adaptability to the water environment, but the competition for water among them was more intense. Furthermore, the water niche breadth and overlap of shrub plants decreased with the promotion of the growth stage, which was related to changes in precipitation and plant physiological characteristics during their growth cycle. Among the studied species, Potentilla fruticosa Linn., Salix oritrepha Schneid., Salix cupularis Rehd. and Rhododendron thymifolium Maxim. had broader water niche breadth in different habitats, indicating superior adaptability to the subalpine environment. Despite that the water niche overlap among shrub plants was high and their competition for water resources was intense, there was no absolute positive correlation between niche breadth and overlap. The research can provide a theoretical reference for the rational allocation of species during vegetation restoration in Qilian Mountain National Park.

Dynamic Monitoring and Analysis of Ecological Environment Quality in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas Based on a Modified Remote Sensing Ecological Index (MRSEI): A Case Study of the Qilian Mountain National Nature Reserve

The ecosystems within the Qilian Mountain National Nature Reserve (QMNNR) and its surrounding areas have been significantly affected by changes in climate and land use, which have, in turn, constrained the region’s socio-economic development. This study investigates the regional characteristics and application requirements of the ecological environment in the arid and semi-arid zones of the reserve. In view of the saturated characteristics of NDVI in the reserve and the high-altitude saline-alkali environmental conditions, this study proposed a Modified Remote Sensing Ecology Index (MRSEI) by introducing the kernel NDVI and comprehensive salinity index (CSI). This approach enhances the applicability of the remote sensing ecological index. The temporal and spatial dynamics of ecological and environmental quality within the QMNNR from 2000 to 2022 were quantitatively assessed using the MRSEI. The effect of land use on ecological quality was quantified by analyzing the MRSEI contribution rate. The findings in this paper indicate that (1) in arid and semi-arid regions, the MRSEI provides a more precise representation of surface ecological environmental quality compared to the remote sensing ecological index (RSEI). The high correlation (R2 = 0.908) and significant difference between MRSEI and RSEI demonstrate that MRSEI enhances the accuracy of evaluating ecological environmental quality. The impact of land use on ecological quality was quantitatively assessed by analyzing the contribution rate of the MRSEI. (2) The ecological quality of the QMNNR exhibited an upward trend from 2000 to 2022, with an increase rate of 1.3 × 10−3 y−1. The area characterized by improved ecological and environmental quality constitutes approximately 53.68% of the total area. Conversely, the ecological quality of the degraded areas accounts for roughly 28.77%. (3) Among the various land use types, the improvement in ecological environmental quality within the reserve is primarily attributed to the expansion of forest and grassland areas, along with a reduction in unused land. Forest and grassland types account for over 90% of the total area classified with “good” and “excellent” ecological grades, whereas unused land types represent more than 44% of the total area classified with “poor” ecological grades. Overall, this study provides a valuable framework for analyzing ecological and environmental changes in arid and semi-arid regions.

Multiphase Tectonic Processes in the Mesozoic and Formation of Early Regional Geomorphic Pattern in the Qilian Orogenic Belt, Northeastern Tibetan Plateau

Abstract Conventional orogenic settings are largely confined to plate boundaries and their immediate vicinity. However, there is growing recognition that deformation of the continental lithosphere may extend for considerable distances away from active plate boundaries. The Mesozoic Qilian orogenic belt occupies a key position in East Asia and thus is important to consider when interpreting intracontinental deformation there. To determine when and how the North Qilian orogenic belt developed, multiple sets of samples collected from the Dahuang Mountain of the North Qilian orogenic belt were analyzed for apatite (U-Th)/He and zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology. The results show that the study area experienced multiphase tectonic exhumation events that took place in the Early-Middle Triassic (250–235 Ma), Middle-Late Jurassic (170–150 Ma), and Early Cretaceous (130–110 Ma). This study reveals that the generation deformation and stress distribution in the Dahuang Mountain fold-fault system have the characteristics of temporal–spatial migration from N to S. Results indicate widespread, continuous exhumation and deposition in the Qilian Mountain due to multiplate interaction since the Mesozoic, persisting till at least late Miocene. Multiphase intracontinental deformation is driven by stresses at plate boundaries, with lithosphere serving as stress pathway.

Incorporating seasonality, predictability, and modularity into the optimization of biodiversity conservation for ecological networks

Improving the connectivity of ecological networks (ENs) is a proven strategy for biological conservation. However, without a clear understanding of animal movement, research on ENs may not provide a sufficient reference for maintaining biodiversity. To address this gap, we embraced central concepts of movement ecology and conducted a study in the Qilian Mountains. The predictability and seasonality of environmental conditions were combined to identify ecological sources with rich temporal niches and improve the informed preference character of resistance surface. Then, we constructed ENs with six dispersal thresholds. Further, integrating modularity and circuit theory, we pinpointed priority areas for restoration within the ENs. Our findings indicated that the eastern part of the Qilian Mountains showed higher biodiversity suitability, with terrain being the primary factor limiting dispersal. Additionally, comparative analyses demonstrate that the new method for measuring biodiversity from the perspective of temporal niche is reliable and better aligns with the needs of biodiversity conservation. In light of emerging challenges within the study area, where apex predators seriously suppress the populations of some smaller predators, we propose a novel conservation idea that emphasizes the strategic retention and removal of barriers to maintain biological balance. This study enriches methodologies for biodiversity measurement, provides forward-looking conservation strategies, and offers practical contributions toward mitigating biodiversity loss.

Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) Activity Patterns Using Camera Traps in the Qilian Mountain National Park (Qinghai Area), China.

In recent years, there has been growing concern about the condition of snow leopards. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia), an apex predator of alpine ecosystems, is essential for the structural and functional stability of ecosystems. Monitoring of snow leopards' activity patterns based on camera traps in the Qilian Mountain National Park (Qinghai area) between August 2020 to October 2023 was performed. The results showed that autumn is the peak period of snow leopard activity, especially in September when the frequency of activity is the highest, and there is one peak in the frequency of snow leopard daily activity in the time period of 18:00-22:00, while the highest overlap of the daily activity curves of snow leopards in different months was from spring to autumn (Δ = 0.97), and there were significant differences in diurnal activity rhythm between spring and autumn (p = 0.002). Snow leopards prefer sunny days, and they tend to be active at temperatures of -10-9 °C. Our research aimed to uncover the activity patterns of snow leopards at different scales within the study area and provide data for further studies on snow leopards and other wildlife by researchers. This study can be used to gain a comprehensive understanding of the ecological characteristics of snow leopards and to assess their habitats, and it will also serve as a reference for the local wildlife management authorities in formulating snow leopard conservation measures.

Different coexistence patterns between apex carnivores and mesocarnivores based on temporal, spatial, and dietary niche partitioning analysis in Qilian Mountain National Park, China

Different coexistence patterns between apex carnivores and mesocarnivores based on temporal, spatial, and dietary niche partitioning analysis in Qilian Mountain National Park, China

Different coexistence patterns between apex carnivores and mesocarnivores based on temporal, spatial, and dietary niche partitioning analysis in Qilian Mountain National Park, China.

Carnivores play key roles in maintaining ecosystem structure and function as well as ecological processes. Understanding how sympatric species coexist in natural ecosystems is a central research topic in community ecology and biodiversity conservation. In this study, we explored intra- and interspecific niche partitioning along spatial, temporal, and dietary niche partitioning between apex carnivores (wolf Canis lupus, snow leopard Panthera uncia, Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx) and mesocarnivores (Pallas's cat Otocolobus manul, red fox Vulpes vulpes, Tibetan fox Vulpes ferrilata) in Qilian Mountain National Park, China, using camera trapping data and DNA metabarcoding sequencing data. Our study showed that apex carnivore species had more overlap temporally (coefficients of interspecific overlap ranging from 0.661 to 0.900) or trophically (Pianka's index ranging from 0.458 to 0.892), mesocarnivore species had high dietary overlap with each other (Pianka's index ranging from 0.945 to 0.997), and apex carnivore and mesocarnivore species had high temporal overlap (coefficients of interspecific overlap ranging from 0.497 to 0.855). Large dietary overlap was observed between wolf and snow leopard (Pianka's index = 0.892) and Pallas's cat and Tibetan fox (Pianka's index = 0.997), suggesting the potential for increased resource competition for these species pairs. We concluded that spatial niche partitioning is likely to key driver in facilitating the coexistence of apex carnivore species, while spatial and temporal niche partitioning likely facilitate the coexistence of mesocarnivore species, and spatial and dietary niche partitioning facilitate the coexistence between apex and mesocarnivore species. Our findings consider partitioning across temporal, spatial, and dietary dimensions while examining diverse coexistence patterns of carnivore species in Qilian Mountain National Park, China. These findings will contribute substantially to current understanding of carnivore guilds and effective conservation management in fragile alpine ecosystems.