Qianlong Research Articles

Observing the Urban and Rural Traffic System in Suzhou in Qing Dynasty from Gusufanhuatu

Gusufanhutu is a long documentary painting volume written by Xu Yang, a court painter in Qing Dynasty. It truly reflects the unique urban and rural traffic situations and basic characteristics of Suzhou in the Qianlong period of Qing Dynasty, and provides a guide for the study of urban and rural transportation system in Qing Dynasty. This painting depicts many scenes and rich contents, which is of great significance to the exploration of the era style of Qianlong Heyday.

Synthesizing a Dual-Definition of Façade in the Western Palaces of the Yuanming Yuan: Art, Politics, and Place-making in the Garden of Perfect Brightness

The Imperial Summer Palace, also known as Yuanming Yuan or Garden of Perfect Brightness, emerged as the center of the Chinese Empire during the eighteenth century and served as the official residence of five Qing Dynasty emperors. However, tension percolating in the mid-nineteenth century regarding British demand for treaty revision resulted in the Second Opium War and the burning of Yuanming Yuan in 1860. The façades and structures of the “European” or “Western” style palaces of the garden were the only buildings not completely obliterated by the fire and have become a symbol of Yuanming Yuan as a whole. This essay analyzes several engravings of the European-style palaces and gardens by court artist Yilantai (1749-1786) and documentary photographs depicting the remaining traces of the palaces taken by German photographer Ernst Ohlmer (1847-1927). The buildings continue to act as a façades in the way their reproduction over three centuries creates an uncanny mixture of the factual and the fantastic. In comparison to the engravings, the photographs might be understood as carrying an indexical documentary potential. However, by examining these two sets together in a more synthesized manner, both present the buildings in a theatrical yet formal method of depiction: they exhibit the very “fairyland” quality Emperor Qianlong had in mind when commissioning their construction, and their simultaneously decorative and void structures provide the backdrop onto which the complex synthesis of art, politics, and place-making in China are projected. After situating the duality of theatricality and illusion alongside the historical framing of Yuanming Yuan, this paper concludes with an analysis of the Yuanming Yuan Ruins Park, a tourist attraction where the factual and the fantastic that marked the buildings in the past continues today.

Вооружение и знамена ойратов Джунгарии середины XVIII в. по материалам «Циньдин Хуанъюй Сиюй тучжи»

Introduction. The article deals with “Qinding Huangyu Xiyu tuzhi” (QHXT), the Qing source of the second half of the 18th century, namely its chapter (juan) 41 devoted to the weapons and military symbols of the Oirats of the Dzungarian state (1635–1758). The chapter in question has not been translated into Russian, neither has it been the subject of a special study so far. The aim of the present article is to introduce the evidence of this part of the Qing source on the weapons and banners of the Dzungars. Results. The compilation of the document was initiated by Emperor Qianlong after the territory of the Dzungar state was annexed to the Qing Empire. A group of Qing officials and of European specialists was sent to explore the newly acquired lands. The work in Dzungaria was largely carried out in 1756–1757, while the study of East Turkestan was completed in the spring of 1759. The work on the text itself began the same year to continue for about 23 years (1759–1782). Manchu military leaders who participated in the war in Central Asia took part, among others, in the compilation of the document. The source includes descriptions of Dzungarian weapons for distant and close combat, armor, and two types of Dzungarian banners. Each item is supplied with description and transcription of its original name. In some cases, the material used for their manufacture and typical sizes are indicated. The data of the written source under study compared with authentic samples of Dzungar weapons and pertaining visual materials has shown that the Qing officials described the features of their construction and decoration with high degree of reliability. Some of this information is unique and can be found in no other sources of the period. The data of the source is of special relevance for attributing various types of weaponry cited in Mongolian sources of the 17th–18th cc., as well as in the Mongolian and Oirat epics. The Qing authors made comparisons of the original names of the Dzungar weapons and armor with their construction features, which opens new avenues for elaborate studies of written works and epics of Central Asian populations. Conclusion. The analysis undertaken in the present article has shown that to date QHST is the most valuable and detailed Qing written source on the weapons and banners of the Dzungars of the middle of the 18th century.

The Technology Transfer from Europe to China in the 17th-18th Centuries: Non-Invasive On-Site XRF and Raman Analyses of Chinese Qing Dynasty Enameled Masterpieces Made Using European Ingredients/Recipes.

Two masterpieces of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE), one in gilded brass (incense burner) decorated with cloisonné enamels stylistically attributed to the end of the Kangxi Emperor’s reign, the other in gold (ewer offered by Napoleon III to the Empress as a birthday present), decorated with both cloisonné and painted enamels bearing the mark of the Qianlong Emperor, were non-invasively studied by optical microscopy, Raman microspectroscopy and X-ray microfluorescence spectroscopy (point measurements and mapping) implemented on-site with mobile instruments. The elemental compositions of the metal substrates and enamels are compared. XRF point measurements and mappings support the identification of the coloring phases and elements obtained by Raman microspectroscopy. Attention was paid to the white (opacifier), blue, yellow, green, and red areas. The demonstration of arsenic-based phases (e.g., lead arsenate apatite) in the blue areas of the ewer, free of manganese, proves the use of cobalt imported from Europe. The high level of potassium confirms the use of smalt as the cobalt source. On the other hand, the significant manganese level indicates the use of Asian cobalt ores for the enamels of the incense burner. The very limited use of the lead pyrochlore pigment (European Naples yellow recipes) in the yellow and soft green cloisonné enamels of the Kangxi incense burner, as well as the use of traditional Chinese recipes for other colors (white, turquoise, dark green, red), reinforces the pioneering character of this object in technical terms at the 17th–18th century turn. The low level of lead in the cloisonné enamels of the incense burner may also be related to the use of European recipes. On the contrary, the Qianlong ewer displays all the enameling techniques imported from Europe to obtain a painted decoration of exceptional quality with the use of complex lead pyrochlore pigments, with or without addition of zinc, as well as cassiterite opacifier.

Вооружение и знамена мусульманского населения Восточного Туркестана и сопредельных территорий середины XVIII в. по материалам «Циньдин Хуанъюй Сиюй тучжи»

Introduction. The article deals with the juan (chapter) 42 of the Qing source “Qinding Huangyu Xiyu tuzhi” written in the second half of the 18th century and devoted to the weapons and banners of the Muslim population (Huibu) of the former Dzungar state. The chapter has not been previously translated into European languages and has not been the object of a special study either. The purpose of the research is to examine and introduce this new data for scholarly attention and further inquiry. Results. The compilation of the document was initiated by Emperor Qianlong after the territory of the Dzungar state was annexed to the Qing Empire. A group of Qing officials and of European specialists was sent to explore the newly acquired lands. The work in Dzungaria was largely carried out in 1756–1757, while the study of East Turkestan was completed in the spring of 1759. The work on the text itself began the same year to continue for about 23 years (1759–1782). Manchu military leaders who participated in the war in Central Asia took part in the compilation of the document, too. The chapter under study describes three types of bladed weapons of the Muslim population in the region (kılıç, selem, hançer), spear (naiza), ax (aibalta), bow (yay), arrows (ok), quiver (saadak), chain mail (sauyt), plate armor (kuyak), quilted soft armor (olbog), mirror armor (char-ayna), helmet (duulga), and plate belt (beldemchi). Special attention was given to such parts of military suits as quilted liners of helmets and upper trousers (shalbars). Also, two types of battle banners are described in detail, such a salam, the small banner of beys and tug, a big banner. Each item is supplied with a description and the transcription of its original name. In some cases, the material used for their manufacture and typical sizes are indicated. Conclusions. The data of the written source under study compared with authentic samples of weapons and pertaining visual materials has shown that the Qing officials described the weapons and banners of the region with high degree of reliability. Some of this information is unique and can be found in no other sources of the period. The authors pointed out correlations between the original names of the weapons and armor with their constructive features, which opens new avenues for further research of the written works and epics of the Turkic population of Central Asia.

THE IMAGE OF CHINA IN THE CORRESPONDENCE OF CATHERINE II

In 1762, Catherine II (1729-1796), Catherine le Grand, as Voltaire called her, an extraordinary woman who was destined to undergo many reforms and establish Russia’s place in the world, ascended to the Russian throne. Her reign coincided with the reign of Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799), one of the most enlightened monarchs in Chinese history; during his time, the empire achieved many military victories and brilliant achievements in the arts. By the time of Catherine’s accession to the throne, relations between the two countries were very strained. Meanwhile, the age of Enlightenment, the century of the ardour for the philosophy and art of China, began in Europe. On the one hand, Catherine was influenced by the ideas of the West; on the other hand, she constantly had to regulate conflicts on the Russian-Chinese border, the reason for which was most often the question of extraditing Mongols and Dzungars to the Chinese who were fleeing within Russia. The purpose of this article is to determine what image of China the Russian empress formed and how she spoke about this country in her correspondence with European correspondents since it is known that Catherine II wrote a lot. To do this, first, it is necessary to characterise the personality of the empress, to understand her interests and habits. To understand what issues she had to resolve, one also needs to know the state of Russian-Chinese relations in the second half of the 18th century. Finally, the article gives a general description of Catherine II’s correspondence with various high-ranking persons, among whom Jean d’Alembert, Diderot, Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior Grimm (Franco-German publicist, artist and literary critic), Swiss scientist and philosopher Johann Georg Ritter von Zimmermann, Madame Geoffrin and Madame Bielke can be named. The letters she received very often contained diplomatic news, dynastic problems, court gossip; her answers were, for the most part, semi-official journal notes. It is noteworthy that despite the extensive correspondence conducted by Catherine the Great, she practically did not touch upon the issues of China, except for letters to Voltaire, who, as you know, admired China and tried to learn more about it from the words of the empress.

Study on the pigments of Chinese architectural colored drawings in the Altar of Agriculture (Beijing, China) by portable Raman spectroscopy and ED-XRF spectrometers

The in-situ measurement was carried out on the pigments used in the colored drawings in the Altar of Agriculture (Beijing, China) for the first time by portable Raman and ED-XRF spectrometers. Three kinds of colored drawings (the original drawing, the restored drawing, and the repainted drawing) located in Sacrificial Storehouse were studied. The information of the pigments, including red lead, white lead, indigo, carbon black, and atacamite were found in the original drawing, while Bright red β-naphthol, Sudan Ⅰ, chrome yellow, titanium dioxide, ultramarine blue, and phthalocyanine green were identified from the repainted drawing. Chrome yellow, ultramarine blue, and phthalocyanine green were used in the green and blue regions of the restored drawing. According to the application history of the pigments and the records of the Altar of Agriculture, the original colored drawing could be dated to the Qianlong period. The pigments used in restoration and repaint hadn’t followed up the original drawing. The main reason is a lack of knowledge about the pigments used in the original painting. Hence, the information of the pigments used in these original drawings is of great guiding significance for the subsequent protection and restoration of the architectural drawings in Altar of Agriculture (Beijing, China).

The economic “micro-cosmos” of Canton as a global entrepôt: Overseas trade, consumption and the Canton System from the Kangxi to Qianlong eras (1683–1795)

ABSTRACT Due to China’s ongoing economic rise, recent studies in global (economic) history have moved away from the traditional Eurocentric view to a Sinocentric one. There is extensive literature focused on the introduction of Chinese goods to Europe, as well as on China’s economic development within the framework of the great divergence debate. However, less research has centred on the introduction of European goods to Chinese markets, specifically the markets in Guangdong or other coastal regions (such as Fujian, Zhejiang and Jiangsu), before the First Opium War. This paper aims to side-step the Sinocentric approach, eschewing the current wave of national history in China, by analysing the international trade in Qing China from the Kangxi era until the Qianlong period. It provides new empirical evidence from the First Historical Archives of China (FHAC) by examining the impact on global trade of China’s imperial edicts and interventionist policies.

Study on the Characteristics of Genealogy Contract Documents in Qing Dynasty

According to the data collected from the genealogical contract documents from the Qing Dynasty to 1949, the genealogical contract documents were first published in the Shunzhi period of the Qing Dynasty, and the contract documents clearly stated that the genealogical contract documents should be published in the Qianlong period. However, the surviving amount of genealogical deed documents is less than one thousandth of the existing genealogy. It is estimated that the surviving amount of genealogical deed documents is less than 5000. As for the type of genealogical contract document, it is roughly the same as the type of scattered contract document, mainly land sale contract document, and genealogical contract document is related to the interests of the clan. The main purpose of the contract in the genealogy is to protect the interests of the family property from loss, so as to maintain the permanent existence of the family property.

“A Style of Chinese Respect”: Lord Macartney’s Reply to the Imperial Edicts of Emperor Qianlong in 1793

Abstract In 1793, King George III of Great Britain sent an official embassy led by Lord George Macartney to China in the hope of getting more favourable trading terms. However, all the requests made by Lord Macartney were rejected flatly in two imperial edicts issued by the Chinese Emperor Qianlong when the embassy was about to leave China. The present paper focuses on Lord Macartney’s response to the two imperial edicts, in particular the official reply Macartney made to the Qing court in the form of a “note” to Heshen before the embassy left China. In the note, Macartney touched upon several important issues, including the sensitive one about the relative status of the two countries. To Macartney, these issues were so crucial that he felt obliged to make a response promptly. The tactful way adopted by Macartney to handle them deserves our special attention.

Exploring the Distribution of Gardens in Suzhou City in the Qianlong Period through a Space Syntax Approach

This study explored the spatial distribution of Suzhou gardens in the Qianlong period (AD 1736–1796) through an innovative method combining spatial syntax and historical textual analysis. Through a spatial syntax approach, a street axis model analysis suggested that the greater the degree of integration and prosperity of a street, the denser the distribution of gardens surrounding it. A canal axis model analysis indicated that more gardens were built around canals that were less integrated and had less traffic. The accuracy and reliability of the axis model analysis results were validated using historical documents and images. The following was observed: (1) Gardens were densely distributed in the prosperous commercial areas at the northern and southern ends of Suzhou City. The more prosperous the location of a garden, the greater the influence on its popularity. (2) Gardens were concentrated in residential areas with booming businesses. (3) Large numbers of gardens were built along canals with poor traffic functions. Building gardens by diverting water into them reflected the complementary relationship between urban geographical characteristics and garden-building techniques. (4) Gardens promoted commercial development, and commerce drove the preservation and continuation of gardens. The findings revealed the complementary relationship between garden preservation and commercial development.

Review: Where Dragon Veins Meet: The Kangxi Emperor and His Estate at Rehe

Review: <i>Where Dragon Veins Meet: The Kangxi Emperor and His Estate at Rehe</i>

Systematic study of the material, structure and lacquering techniques of lacquered wooden coffins from the Eastern Regius Tombs of the Qing Dynasty, China

This paper presents a series of detailed analysis results from lacquered wooden coffins of Emperor Qianlong’s concubines (Huixian, Shujia) and second empress (Wulanala) excavated from the Eastern Regius Tombs of the Qing Dynasty, China. The analysis is focused on the materials used in the lacquered wooden coffins, specifically investigating the pigments, lacquers, organic additives and lacquering techniques using digital microscopy, SEM-EDS, XRD, micro-Raman spectroscopy, FT-IR and THM-Py-GC/MS. The results demonstrate that the mineral pigments were mainly HgS, As2S3, the golden area in the lacquer film layers mainly contained elements Au and Ag, the lacquer ash layers mainly included several layers of stucco and fiber layers arranged alternately, the lacquer sap was urushi, and heat-bodied tung oil was also present in the lacquer. Furthermore, several kinds of lacquering techniques, which demonstrated traditional Chinese lacquering and the rigid hierarchy of funerals in feudal dynasties, are also identified in this investigation.

Analyzing the Color on Ivory: Scientific Research on a Chinese Panel of the Eighteenth Century

ABSTRACT Ivory handicraft developed in China 7000 years ago and reached its peak during the Qing dynasty. Among the numerous court collections of ivory handicrafts, a hanging polychrome panel describing a scene of prosperous business at the harbor near Guangzhou with an exquisite embedded ivory carving was analyzed comprehensively for pigments and dyes. A process for painting on ivory was revealed with the help of scientific analysis. In this artifact, the palette included reds made of hematite, cinnabar, and cochineal, blues based on azurite and Prussian blue, and greens made with mixtures of gamboge and Prussian blue. For the first time, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) was used for analyzing the dyes used on ivory. Besides analyzing the pigments and dyes in painted ivory technology, the dating of the painted artifact was estimated on the basis of pigment manufacturing and trading history. It was concluded that the artifact belonged to the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty.

The Chinese Gazette in European Sources from the Late Qianlong Period: The Case of the Siku Quanshu

Abstract The publicly available government gazette (often called dibao 邸報) that was published in a variety of formats in imperial China has recently caught new academic interest both in China and in the West. While most of these studies focus on the Peking Gazette (jingbao 京報) in the (late) nineteenth century, information about the gazette for earlier times remains very scarce. To address this gap, the present study focuses on the gazette from the Qianlong period (1736–1795). It uses and describes both Chinese sources, specifically the tizou shijian 題奏事件, and European sources, especially the French translations of gazettes by Jean-Joseph-Marie Amiot (1718–1793). A case study of translated reports on the Siku quanshu 四庫全書 sent to Europe shows how the Chinese gazette became part of a remarkable and lively global information network.

A Study On Story-Telling Associating Local Specialties And A Historical Person

Local specialties are items of special quality that originate from certain regions. For local specialties to be labelled as luxury goods, storytelling based on historicity and popularity is required. The existence of these items over a long period of time is emphasized to increase historicity. To increase popularity, it has been emphasized that these products were used by famous people like kings. To elaborate on some such cases, I have analyzed local specialties from Korea, China, and France. An important ingredient in Korean food, red chilli pepper paste,is known for being made in the Sunchang area. However, it was made 250 years ago, and the story of the relationship with Lee SeongGye, from more than 600 years ago, has been used to popularize the same. XiHuLongjing Tea, the representative tea of China, is a high quality teabut was rated as intermediate. It has gained fame over time and has been associated with Emperor Qianlong. Brie cheese, representing France, the land of cheese, has been associated with Louis XIV as a luxury item to overcome the historicity of Roquefort cheese and the popularity of Comté cheese. In this way, local specialties have been made into luxury productsthrough a halo effect by bringing historicity or popularity using storytelling.

Western timepieces of Qing emperor Qianlong (1736–1795): the first European collection in China

Many of European clocks in the Beijing’s Palace Museum (Gugong) were made in second half of the 18th century, by the Qing Emperor Qianlong’s governing (1736–1795), when an exotic “Chinese style” (chinoiserie) in the decorative arts was at its height. The research methodology proposed below, which combines art history and cultural analysis, allows us to see, that the Palace Collection’s mix determined evolution of the clock’s industry in China and some European lands, who took part in the international clock and watch market. In forms and decor of Chinese clocks the 18th century were reflected the change of European market. Together with western mechanical clock, being at the same time scientific device and work of decorative art, the European styles system was by ritual participation admitted in China. В статье показано, что западная часовая коллекция Цяньлуна (1736–1795), явившаяся первым в империи Цин (1644–1911) собранием произведений европейского искусства, связана с художественным рынком и феноменом шинуазри. Предложенная ниже методология, сочетающая искусствоведческий и культурологический подходы, позволяет увидеть, что состав этой коллекции повлиял на развитие производства механических часов в самом Китае и западных странах — участницах международного рынка искусств XVIII века. Собирательство механических хронометров в государстве Цин было обусловлено ритуализацией часов, устранившей проблему дуализма китайского и западного начал в цинской культуре и искусстве.

Qing Literati’s Quiet Resistance against Qianlong’s Condemnation of Qian Qianyi

The deeds and words of the well-known Ming–Qing historical figure Qian Qianyi (1582–1664), as well as his name, suddenly turned into taboos in local histories during the high Qing due to the Qianlong emperor’s condemnation of Qian for serving two dynasties. Nevertheless, the sources in the gazetteers reveal that the imperial measures could hardly achieve the emperor’s goal, neither eradicating the non-censored publications during the Qianlong literary inquisition nor prohibiting the use of Qian’s works in the gazetteers compiled after the edict. This phenomenon discloses how everyday resistance was practiced by some local Chinese literati during and after the Qianlong reign in their struggle against the cultural hegemony of the imperial court.

청 건륭제 ｢薩爾滸之戰書事｣ 비석과 비문 고찰 -조선군의 참전기록을 중심으로-

청 건륭제 ｢薩爾滸之戰書事｣ 비석과 비문 고찰 -조선군의 참전기록을 중심으로-

One Painting, Two Emperors, and Their Cultural Agendas

Abstract This research focuses on one of the most famous paintings made at the court of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911)—Qingming shanghe (Up the River during Qingming). Commissioned by the Yongzheng emperor (r. 1723–1735) and completed in the second year of the Qianlong emperor's reign (1736–1795), the painting is a rare example of Qing court art that reveals how Qianlong furthered his father's artistic vision while formulating his own in the first fifteen years of his long tenure as ruler. This vision involved how to reinterpret and reinvent the Chinese painting tradition through time-honored themes. The article is divided into four sections. In the first, it brings attention to the salient and crucial but long neglected stylistic features of the painting—those that emphasize theatricality and spectatorship. These interconnected features link and characterize the paintings commissioned by Yongzheng. The second section shifts to discuss the emerging cultural agenda of Yongzheng as seen through the manner in which court art references the Chinese painting tradition. The most remarkable act regards the reinterpretation of old painting themes that include Qingming shanghe and Baijun tu (One Hundred Horses). The third section analyzes how the paratextual elements of Qingming shanghe, especially Qianlong's poem and inscription, inform us of the emperor's views about the production mechanism of court painting and the political meaning of this work. The last section, based on Qianlong's understanding of the painting, highlights the emperor's cultural agenda associated with the idea of yuanben, which pointed to new versions of old themes made by his painting academy.