Pyrolysis Of Palm Kernel Shell Research Articles

Experimental strategy for the preparation of adsorbent materials from torrefied palm kernel shell oriented to CO2 capture

In this study, an experimental strategy to obtain biochar and activated carbon from torrefied palm kernel shell as an efficient material for CO2 removal was evaluated. Biochar was obtained by slow pyrolysis of palm kernel shell at different temperatures (350 °C, 550 °C, and 700 °C) and previously torrefied palm kernel shell at different temperatures (220 °C, 250 °C, and 280 °C). Subsequently, activated carbons were prepared by physical activation with CO2 from previously obtained biochar samples. The CO2 adsorption capacity was measured using TGA. The experimental results showed that there is a correlation between the change in the O/C and H/C ratios and the functional groups –OH and C=O observed via FTIR in the obtained char, indicating that both dehydration and deoxygenation reactions occur during torrefaction; this favors the deoxygenation reactions and makes them faster through CO2 liberation during the pyrolysis process. The microporous surface area shows a significant increase with higher pyrolysis temperatures, as a product of the continuous carbonization reactions, allowing more active sites for CO2 removal. Pyrolysis temperature is a key factor in CO2 adsorption capacity, leading to a CO2 adsorption capacity of up to 75 mg/gCO2 for biochar obtained at 700 °C from non-torrefied palm kernel shell (Char700). Activated carbon obtained from torrefied palm kernel shell at 280 °C (T280-CHAR700-AC) exhibited the highest CO2 adsorption capacity (101.9 mg/gCO2). Oxygen-containing functional groups have a direct impact on CO2 adsorption performance due to electron interactions between CO2 and these functional groups. These findings could provide a new experimental approach for obtaining optimal adsorbent materials exclusively derived from thermochemical conversion processes.

CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PYROLYSIS OF LOW RANK COAL AND BIOMASS

Low rank coals are not used optimally, another way to increase this value is combustion without oxygen, known as pyrolysis. On the other hand, as a solid waste biomass, palm kernel shell (PKS) is a by-product of the palm oil industry that can cause environmental problems if not handled properly. In fact, the waste is plentiful and not even widely used, therefore it may also be an ideal feedstock for the pyrolysis process. This study compares the distribution of products from coal and PKS pyrolysis, and also characterizes the liquid (tar) and solid (char) products. The results show that the pyrolysis of coal produces more char, while the pyrolysis of PKS produces more gas. Higher tar yields were obtained with the pyrolysis process using PKS. GC-MS identified the main tar compounds for both materials as phenol and acetic acid, 3-methylphenol and methanol were also found in coal and PKS, respectively. The calorific value of char increased by about 5.19 % for coal and 41.12 % for PKS after pyrolysis. The other physical properties of coal and PKS are also improved after pyrolysis. Therefore, the application of pyrolysis in the use of coal and PKS can increase the added value of these two materials and contribute to alternative energy sources.

Optimization of the Product Yields of the Pyrolysis of Palm Kernel Shell in a Fixed-Bed Reactor Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

Pyrolysis is a method used for the thermochemical conversion of biomass and agro wastes into three major by-products namely, biochar, bio-oil, and biogas in the absence of oxygen. Global waste generation is increasing at an alarming rate. Palm kernel shell (PKS) is among the palm wastes accumulating in many palm oil mills around the globe with the attendant problems in waste management. The utilization of coal for energy generation is more expensive and not environmentally friendly. Bio-oil refineries and industries require the utilization of minimum resources (input) to achieve optimal response (output) in the production process. However, more than 30% of the energy content derivation from the pyrolysis process is wasted due to nonoptimization of the process parameters. This study investigated the optimization of the product yields of the pyrolysis of PKS in a fixed-bed batch reactor using response surface methodology (RSM). Masses of 1 kg, 2 kg, and 3 kg were pyrolyzed in batches at process temperature variations of 200 OC, 300 OC, 400 OC, and 500 OC. Design Expert 12 software (Version 12.0.3.0 Stat-Ease Inc. MN, USA) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used for the statistical analysis. Lack-of-fit, adjusted, and predicted multiple correlation coefficients and coefficient of variation of the different polynomial models were compared to select the best-fitting polynomial model. The optimal feedstock parameters were 2.66 kg of PKS and 410.0 OC process temperature. The predicted results were 0.986 kg of biochar, 1.205 kg of bio-oil, 0.481 kg of biogas, 1116.5 cm3 of bio-oil, and 140.6 minutes. The experimental results were 0.894 kg of biochar, 1.316 kg of bio-oil, 0.498 kg of biogas, 1208.9 cm3 of bio-oil, and at 162.8 minutes through validation. The validated quadratic model was suitable for the optimization and RSM is a numerical, statistical, and mathematical tool for modeling and optimization of the pyrolysis process in a fixed-bed batch reactor.

Evaluation of stirring rate and pH on phenolic compounds recovery from palm kernel shell heavy phase bio-oil

This study aims to develop an efficient separation method for phenolic compounds derived from the heavy phase of bio-oil produced by the pyrolysis of palm kernel shell. Two variables were investigated during phenolic compound extraction using dichloromethane, i.e., stirring rate and pH of the solution. In both variables, the composition, yield, and distribution coefficient of the extracted phase were investigated. The results showed that the phenolic compounds' extraction favors high stirring rate and it obtained more results at more acidic conditions (lower pH). The best conditions for phenolic compounds were at 300 rpm of stirring rate and pH 4, which resulted in 77.88 % of yield and a 1.13 distribution of coefficient for the total phenols. The findings of this research will contribute to the better separation of phenolic compounds in bio-oil for improving its fuel characteristics as well as producing value-added chemicals.

High-efficiency catalytic pyrolysis of palm kernel shells over Ni2P/nitrogen-doped activated carbon catalysts

Catalytic pyrolysis is a cost-effective technology for high-quality biofuel production. Biomass is converted to bio-oil by a thermal process in the presence of a catalyst. Catalyst development influences the reaction-pathway control to form a specific product. Here, the catalytic pyrolysis of palm kernel shells was investigated on melamine-doped activated-carbon-supported Ni2P. Different amounts of melamine (25–100 wt% support) were loaded on activated carbon by impregnation and carbonization, while the Ni2P catalyst was fabricated by the co-impregnation of nickel nitrate and ammonium hydrogen phosphate. The interaction between nitrogen-containing functional groups on the carbon surface and Ni2P caused a uniform dispersion of small-sized crystalline Ni2P particles on the activated-carbon surface, reduced from 28.91 nm to 10.85 nm, as shown by transmission electron microscopy analysis. The Ni2P/CN catalyst exhibited high oxygen removal and alkylphenol selectivity (more than 63%) in the liquid product at 350 °C under atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the Ni2P/CN catalyst described here exhibits good potential for high-selectivity catalytic pyrolysis of biomass to produce phenolic compounds, which have wide application in monomers and fuel additives.

Wet synthesis, characterization of goethite nanoparticles and its application in catalytic pyrolysis of palm kernel shell in TGA

Catalytic pyrolysis of biomass is a suitable means of obtaining high-yield bio-oil with reduced activation energy and char content. Goethite nanoparticles were synthesized via coprecipitation of FeCl2.4H2O and NaHCO3. TGA purged with N2 was used to study goethite’s catalytic effect on the thermal degradation of PKS. The obtained particles were characterized via instrumental analysis using BET, TEM, SEAD, and XRD gave multipoint SA of 309 m2/g & 0.276 cc/g; 18.33 nm; rings occurring at (101), (111), (021); and crystallinity of 51.51% with average size of 9.16 nm respectively. Their morphology was circular and needle-like shape. Its average crystallite size was 9.16 nm with a crystallinity of 51.51%. The 62.10% Fe in goethite was a suitable factor for its application as a catalyst in the thermal decomposition of PKS. The average Ea for uncatalyzed PKS were 53.45, 44.95, 47.09, 49.05 and 70.63 kJ/mol for order n =1, 0.30, 0.50, 0.67 and 2.00 respectively at the α of 0.2 while the average Ea for catalyzed PKS were 19.17, -17.70, 10.27, 12.64 and 52.69 kJ/mol for same order sequence at α of 0.71 using Coats–Redfern kinetics model. The goethite nanoparticles reduced Ea with higher α due to its special physicochemical properties.

Molecular docking analysis on antifungal properties of acid condensate produced from palm kernel shell

AbstractThe rise in the number of fungi that resisted antifungal action is of serious concern nowadays. In this study, the potential of acid condensate (AC) produced from microwave‐assisted pyrolysis of palm kernel shell (PKS) was investigated for its antifungal properties through molecular docking evaluation. The phenolic‐rich AC was determined for its chemical compositions using the GC–MS analysis where compounds with the highest phenolics content were further evaluated (using the Autodock Tools 1.5.7) for its potential enzymes/protein binding properties. From the GC–MS analysis, catechol, guaiacol and syringol were present at highest percentages. This directly correlates with results obtained from the molecular docking works where all these ligands managed to bind (indicated by H‐bond, π‐stacking, hydrophobic interaction) with some of the amino acid at the active sites which indicate its potential to inhibit substrate binding of this enzyme. As a conclusion, this study demonstrated the potential use of AC from agricultural biomass such as PKS as a natural‐based antifungal agent that can reduce environmental and health impacts.

Phenol-rich bio-oil from pyrolysis of palm kernel shell and its isolated lignin

Phenol and phenolic compounds are the important chemicals for several industries. To reduce the dependence on the petroleum-based production, lignocellulosic biomass becomes the promising resource. Palm kernel shell and its real isolated lignin were comparatively studied for the potential on the production of phenol and phenolic compounds via the pyrolysis process. Both samples were subjected to various chemical and thermal analyses to compare their chemical structures and thermal behavior. The pyrolysis process of palm kernel shell and its lignin was performed with a fixed-bed reactor to generate bio-oil with a high fraction of phenol and phenolic compounds. The extraction process could affect the structure of lignin and the pyrolysis behavior of the lignin. Pyrolysis experiments showed that the isolated lignin gave a higher yield of bio-oil than the palm kernel shell and about twice the total fraction of phenol and phenolic compounds. Phenol production from palm kernel shell was highest at a pyrolysis temperature of 500 °C, while yields of other phenolic compounds were highest at 400 °C. Including phenol, H-type phenolic compounds were the main product from both palm kernel shell and its isolated lignin. C-type phenolic compounds were found in significant quantities in the bio-oil from lignin. The total fraction of phenol and other phenolic compounds from the lignin bio-oil was up to 78 % and higher than that from the palm kernel shell bio-oil. • Isolated lignin of PKS was studied for phenol and phenolic production. • Highest production of phenol was from the pyrolysis of PKS at 500 °C. • Lignin generated more total phenol and phenolic compounds than PKS. • Lignin gave 78 % of phenol and phenolic compounds in bio-oil.

Beyond conventional biomass valorisation: pyrolysis-derived products for biomedical applications

Biomass valorisation is conventionally associated with the production of green biofuels. However, this could extend beyond the conventional perception of biomass application into other domains such as medical sciences. Acid condensate (AC) obtained from pyrolysis promises a good potential for biomedical applications, notably for its antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, concentrated AC extract (CACE) obtained from microwave-assisted pyrolysis of palm kernel shells was fractionated, and the resulting fractions were pooled according to similar thin layer chromatography profiles into combined fractions (CFACs). CFACs were evaluated for total phenolic content, antioxidant level, cytotoxicity, and wound healing activities toward human skin fibroblast cells (HSF 1184). CFAC-3 showed the highest total phenolic content (624.98 ± 8.70 µg GAE/mg of sample) and antioxidant activities (DPPH IC50 of 29.47 ± 0.74 µg/mL, ABTS of 1247.13 ± 27.89 μg TE/mg sample, FRAP of 24.26 ± 0.71 mmol Fe(II)/mg sample, HFRS of 257.74 ± 1.74 µg/mL) compared to CACE (DPPH IC50 of 81.76 ± 2.81 µg/mL, ABTS of 816.95 ± 30.49 μg TE/mg sample, FRAP of 9.22 ± 0.66 mmol Fe(II)/mg sample, HFRS of 689.30 ± 36.00 µg/mL), no cytotoxic properties at ≤50 µg/mL, and significantly faster wound closure (at 1.25 µg/mL) compared to the control 12 h after treatment. The phosphorylation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (AKT) were upregulated, thus indicating that wound healing of CFAC-3 followed through this signalling pathway. To conclude, phenolic-rich CFAC-3 obtained from the pyrolysis of palm kernel shells demonstrated potential biomedical application as an alternative wound healing agent with high antioxidant and wound-healing activity. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to report on the wound healing activity of AC and its wound healing mechanism.

Pyrolysis of palm kernel shell using screw-assisted fluidization: effect of heating rate

Pyrolysis of palm kernel shell using screw-assisted fluidization: effect of heating rate

Surface-Modified Carbon Synthesized from Palm Kernel Shell for Electric Double-Layer Capacitor Applications

This research was conducted to study changes in functional groups after oxidation of porous carbon synthesized from palm kernel shell and their effects on the performance of material for an electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC). Porous carbon was prepared by pyrolysis of palm kernel shell at a temperature of 800 °C and steam activation. Surface modification was conducted by oxidation porous carbon using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Properties of material were characterized using N2-sorption analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. Measurement of biomass-based porous carbon as an electrode for EDLC was carried out using cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge methods. The test was conducted using a three-electrode system, with carbon as the working electrode, Ag/AgCl as the reference electrode, Pt as the auxiliary electrode. The electrolyte used was 1 M H2SO4 solution. The results showed that oxidation of porous carbon using H2O2 lowers the specific surface area but increases oxygen functional groups in the carbon surface. The results on testing the performance of EDLC, surface-modified carbon showed better EDLC performance of 5-7 times higher compared to carbon before oxidation.

Enhanced pyrolysis of palm kernel shell wastes to bio-based chemicals and syngas using red mud as an additive

In the present study, the red mud (RM, a waste from aluminium industry) was employed to catalyze the pyrolysis of palm kernel shell (PKS, a waste from palm oil generation industry) to produce bio-chemicals and syngas using a bench scale fixed bed reactor. The composition of the achieving bio-oil was determined by a GC/MS analyzer. The results show that RM could promote the conversion of PKS biochar and bio-oil to non-condensable gases during the pyrolysis process of PKS. The addition of RM enhanced the decomposition of oxygen-containing functional groups and double bonds in side chains on benzene rings, resulting in the formation of phenol and aromatics accounting for 85.61 area% in bio-oil. Moreover, the total energy-based yield of gaseous and liquid products reached up to 87% at 800 °C with a PKS/RM mass ratio of 1:1.8. The steam gasification reactivity of PKS biochar was also significantly improved with the addition of RM. The findings imply that RM is a promising additive that allows the utilization of PKS waste riched in lignin component to generate valuable products via pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis of Palm Kernel Shell to Chemicals by Using Bayah Natural Zeolites

Palm kernel shell (PKS) is one of the biomass with high potential that can be converted into chemicals. In this study, palm kernel shell (PKS) was converted by pyrolysis method to produce condensed liquid products, gas, and solid. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of catalyst activation time on yields and characteristics of PKS waste pyrolysis products. The pyrolysis process was carried out at a temperature of 500oC. Based on the results obtained with the addition of catalysts at 7 hr of activation can reduce the yield of solid products by 1.5% wt and 9.01% wt of liquid and increase the yield of gas products by 10.51% wt. On the characteristics of solid product there is a decrease in volatile matter by 55.04% wt and an increase fixed carbon by 40.27% wt. The gas characteristics, the H2 and CO gas decreases by 5.43% v/v and 1.36% v/v and the increase in CH4 and CO2 gas by 1.07% v/v and 5.72% v/v. Characteristics of the liquid obtained an increase in the amount of acetic acid by 11.75% v/v and decrease phenol compounds by 13.08% v/v. The result liquid product can be applied as a chemical.

Applying microwave vacuum pyrolysis to design moisture retention and pH neutralizing palm kernel shell biochar for mushroom production

Microwave vacuum pyrolysis of palm kernel shell was examined to produce engineered biochar for application as additive in agriculture application. The pyrolysis approach, performed at 750 W of microwave power, produced higher yield of porous biochar (28 wt%) with high surface area (270 cm2/g) compared to the yield obtained by conventional approach (<23 wt%). Addition of the porous biochar in mushroom substrate showed increased moisture content (99%) compared to the substrate without biochar (96%). The mushroom substrate added with biochar (150 g) was optimal in shortening formation, growth, and full colonization of the mycelium within one month. Using 2.5% of the biochar in mushroom substrate desirably maintained the optimum pH level (6.8–7) during the mycelium colonization period, leading to high mycelium growth (up to 91%) and mushroom yield (up to 280 g). The engineered biochar shows great potential as moisture retention and neutralizing agent in mushroom cultivation.

Characterization and antiinflammatory properties of fractionated pyroligneous acid from palm kernel shell.

Pyroligneous acid (PA) obtained from slow pyrolysis of palm kernel shell (PKS) has high total phenolic contents and exhibits various biological activities including antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal. In this study, PA obtained using slow pyrolysis method and fractionated using column chromatography was characterized (chemical and antioxidative properties) and investigated for its cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) inhibition activities using the in vitro and in silico approaches. The F9 PA fraction exhibited highest total phenolic content of 181.75 ± 17.0μg/mL. Fraction F21-25 showed ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (331.80 ± 4.60mg TE/g) and IC50 of 18.56 ± 0.01μg/mL towards COX-2 and 5.25 ± 0.03μg/mL towards the 5-LOX enzymes, respectively. Molecular docking analysis suggested favourable binding energy for all chemical compounds present in fraction F21-25, notably 1-(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)-2-pentanone, towards both COX-2 (- 6.9kcal/mol) and 5-LOX (- 6.4kcal/mol) enzymes. As a conclusion, PA from PKS has the potential to be used as an alternative antioxidant and antiinflammatory agents which is biodegradable and a more sustainable supply of raw materials.

Biochar production from palm oil mill residues and application of the biochar to adsorb carbon dioxide

The amount of palm oil mill residues increases rapidly and will become a severe problem in the future. One potential technique for alleviating this concerning environmental problem is to convert these residues into biochar by the pyrolysis process. Pyrolysis of three types of palm oil mill residues (namely, palm kernel shells, empty palm fruit bunches, and oil palm fibers) was conducted in a fixed bed reactor at 500 °C and 2 L/min of nitrogen flow rate for 60 min. The optimization of biochar production was performed using the Box-Behnken design and analyzed using response surface methodology. The effects of three potential factors, including pyrolysis temperatures, nitrogen flow rates, and biomass particle sizes, were studied. The results showed that the highest biochar yield (44.91 wt%) was obtained from pyrolysis of palm kernel shells at 525 °C with a nitrogen flow rate of 2 L/min and a particle size of 750 μm. Application of biochar produced from palm kernel shells for carbon dioxide capture was tested in a packed bed adsorber of 3.0 g of biochar sample by flowing 1,400 ppm of carbon dioxide in the gas feed mixture at 2.5 L/min. The capacity of the biochar sample for CO2 adsorption was 0.46 mmol/g.

Catalytic reforming of palm kernel shell microwave pyrolysis vapors over iron-loaded activated carbon: Enhanced production of phenol and hydrogen

This study addresses the in-situ microwave catalytic reforming of volatile matter from palm kernel shell (PKS) over iron-loaded activated carbon (Fe/AC) catalysts. The impacts of catalyst composition on the secondary gas-phase reactions and distribution of products were studied at 500 °C. It was found that the Fe/AC catalyst promoted the yield of light gases. Using the 1%-Fe/AC catalyst, the yield of gaseous fraction peaked at 37.09 wt%. The selectivity of the deoxygenated products was promoted in the presence of Fe. Catalytic reforming of PKS pyrolysis vapors over Fe/AC drastically enhanced the generation of phenol and H2, the concentrations of which reached 75.09 area% and 75.12 vol%, respectively. Catalytic pyrolysis of syringol and guaiacol as model compounds showed that Fe/AC catalyst promoted the demethoxylation and deoxygenation reactions to selectively generate phenol which was explained by oxophilic reactivity of the active Fe sites.

SIMULATION OF CO-PROCESSING BIO-OIL AND VGO IN FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING UNITS

Biofuel is a promising substitute for fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to provide highly sustainable fuels. Several technical challenges are indeed present during upgrading bio-oil to transportation fuel on a large scale. Co-processing bio-oil with some petroleum fractions in existing refineries serves as an alternative method to minimise processing costs. This paper aims to evaluate the co-processing by exploring the effects of temperature, bio-oil ratios and types of bio-oil to the product yields and quality in a Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) unit within a refinery complex. The considered bio-oil are produced from pyrolysis of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) and Empty Fruit bunch (EFB). The results show that bio-oil from PKS is better suited to produce gasoline due to its aromatic nature and its carbon range similarities compared to that from EFB. A mixture of 20% of hydrodeoxygenated (HDO) PKS in vacuum gas oil (VGO) shows a 5% improvement of naphtha yield while 20% raw bio-oil from PKS produces 4% increase in light cycle oil (LCO) yield.&#x0D; Keywords: co-processing, fluid catalytic cracking, bio-oil, palm kernel shell, empty fruit bunch, simulation

Promotion Effects of Pressure on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and H2 Formation during Flash Pyrolysis of Palm Kernel Shell

This study reports the role of pressure (0.1-4.0 MPa) and temperature (600 oC-900 °C) in flash pyrolysis of palm kernel shell (PKS). The main objective was to study the extent to which pressure affects the mechanism of pyrolysis reactions to enhance the selective production of target products. Higher pressures and temperatures selectively promoted the generation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) and H2 gas. Bio-oil samples generated at lower temperatures and pressures were mainly composed of phenolics. Increasing pressure and temperature favored the selective formation of phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene, fluoranthene, and fluorene, which reached 96.17 area%. Elevated temperatures and pressures enhanced hydrogen transfer into light gaseous phase. The yield of H2 peaked at 40.82 gH2/kg.PKS at 900 ⁰C and 2.0 MPa. The results obtained in this study implied that the pyrolysis of biomass at elevated pressures is an effective method for poly-generation of hydrogen gas and chemical feedstock, in partic...

Insight into Co-pyrolysis of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) with Palm Oil Sludge (POS): Effect on Bio-oil Yield and Properties

Bio-oil a carbon based liquid fuel from fast pyrolysis of biomass, can bring prospective changes in the renewable energy field gradually. However, the bio-oil ought to be upgraded since it possesses several negative attributes such as high corrosiveness, high acidity, and high content of water. Catalytic pyrolysis and co-pyrolysis are able to improve some of the properties of bio-oil during production. The fast pyrolysis of palm kernel shell (PKS) produces acidic bio-oil whereas the fast pyrolysis of palm oil sludge (POS) liberates basic bio-oil. Therefore, current study investigated the fast co-pyrolysis of PKS with POS at different blend ratios (10, 20, 35 and 50 wt% POS with PKS) with the aim to produce bio-oil with improved pH. The corresponding blends were pyrolyzed at 507 ± 13 °C in a fixed bed reactor. As the amount of POS in the blends increased from 0 to 100 wt%, a negative synergistic effect (SP) was observed and so a decrease in bio-oil yield. The observation was attributed to the presence of AAEMs found in POS. The total acid number (TAN) of bio-oils decreased with increasing POS ratio in the blends as well. At PKS to POS mass ratio of 50:50, the pH value of the bio-oil produced was 4.6 ± 0.1. Based on the yield and physical properties of bio-oil, the blend with 20 wt% of POS was chosen as the desired ratio as it yielded 40.8 ± 3.7 wt% of bio-oil with a slight negative synergistic effect (SP) of 3.26.