Purolite C100 Research Articles

Applications of Ion Exchange in Environmental Remediation: Removal of Heavy Metals From Wastewater

ABSTRACTThe concern over heavy metal contamination and its impact on human health and the environment has led to a growing interest in cost‐effective and sustainable remediation technologies. Ion exchange is recognized as an efficient method for removing heavy metal ions from wastewater. This study focused on the removal of heavy metal ions (Ni, Cu, Zn, and Pb) from aqueous solutions using the extended batch equilibrium technique. Experimental trials were conducted using Purolite C100, a strong acid ion‐exchange resin, to assess the influence of various treatment parameters such as pH, contact time, sorbent dosages, and initial heavy metal concentrations on the removal efficiency. The results indicated that significant treatment equilibrium could be achieved within 1 h. Notably, pH levels between 5 and 6 had a significant impact on heavy metal removal, with adsorption capacities of 71, 67, 66, and 62 mg/g for Ni, Cu, Zn, and Pb, respectively. Furthermore, the equilibrium data obtained from the batch experiments were well fitted with Langmuir, Freundlich, and pseudo‐first‐order kinetic models. Statistical analysis revealed a strong correlation with the Langmuir isotherm model, highlighting its superiority over the Freundlich isotherm and pseudo‐first‐order kinetic models.

Influence of synthesis conditions and raw materials on the properties of N‐chlorosulfonamides immobilized on granular styrene–divinylbenzene polymer carriers

AbstractPolymer materials with immobilized functional groups–donors of active chlorine are widely used to create products with a microbiocidal effect and increased resistance to microbial contamination. In this work, various methods for the synthesis of granular styrene–divinylbenzene polymers with N‐chlorosulfonamide groups were investigated. It has been shown that the synthesis of polymers with chlorine‐active SO2NNaCl groups from a non‐functionalized styrene–divinylbenzene polymer matrix through the stage of its sulfochlorination with chlorosulfonic acid in dichloromethane for 6–7 h is optimal. These products contain approximately 11% of active chlorine and maintain a stable particle size distribution. When cation exchangers such as Purolite C100 are used as the initial polymer carrier, the content of chlorine‐active groups in the target product is approximately 9%, and an increase in the content of the dust fraction is observed. The obtained samples, regardless of the synthesis method, are capable of releasing active chlorine into solutions containing amino compounds. The microbial impurities in water also cause the emission of active chlorine in an amount that does not depend on the loading of the polymer, but is determined by the concentration of microbes, due to which a pronounced antimicrobial effect is observed. In this case, the resulting products do not cause further decomposition of the functional groups of the polymer, which indicates the high service life of the latter. The availability of raw materials, relative ease of synthesis, stability, possibility of regeneration and microbiocidal properties of the studied polymers make them promising for use as components of water and air purification systems and other products for medical and industrial purposes. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of the type of ion-exchange resin on Mn<sup>2+</sup> adsorption in the presence of competing cations

Present in soils, ground and surface waters, manganese is among the most common metals in Earth crust. It is also an essential trace element to the functioning of several enzymes in the human body. However, exposure to high manganese concentrations can also be harmful to humans with psychiatric and motor effects and therefore, manganese concentrations in drinking water and also industrial effluents are regulated. In the current work, the adsorption of Ca<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup> and Mn<sup>2+</sup> on three different ion-exchange resins: (i) aminophosphonic acid - chelating (Purolite S950), (ii) polyacrylic weak acid cation (Purolite C104E) and (iii) polystyrene strong acid cation (Purolite C100) was investigated. The results revealed that Purolite S950 had the highest Mn2+ uptake (37.9 mg/mL-resin or 0.69 mmol/mL-resin) as compared to Ca<sup>2+</sup> (3.2 mg/mL-resin or 0.08 mmol/mL-resin) and Mg<sup>2+</sup> (~0 mg/mL-resin) and was selected for further kinetics and equilibrium studies. The results indicated Purolite S950 as particularly suited to be applied in the treatment of neutral mine waters with high Mg/Mn ratios. Additionally, Purolite S950 showed a small affinity for Ca<sup>2+</sup> and therefore an efficient Mn<sup>2+</sup> removal will depend on the Ca/Mn ratio of the mine water under treatment. According to the kinetic analysis, manganese sorption on Purolite S950 was described by the pseudo-second order model (r<sup>2</sup> > 0.98) with an activation energy of 10.40 kJ/mol and thus pore-difussion was the rate controlling step of the process. In terms of equilibrium studies, manganese sorption on Purolite S950 followed the Langmuir model with maximum loadings of up to 41.5 mg/mL-resin. The thermodynamic modelling indicated an exothermic process (-85.0 kJ/mol, as standard enthalpy) with a standard entropy of -274 J/mol.K, which was ascribed to the release of two adsorbed H<sup>+</sup> ions for each Mn<sup>2+</sup> ion taken up from solution

Desalination of brackish groundwater using self-regeneration hybrid ion exchange and reverse osmosis system (HSIX-RO)

The United Nations International Decade for Action on Water for Sustainable Development (2018–2028) recognized the importance of water to sustainable development and the eradication of poverty and hunger. It voiced alarm over the worsening of issues such as access to clean water, water scarcity, and wastewater as a result of increasing populations and altered climates. One of the most promising solutions to the water shortage is desalination, which can increase the available water supply beyond the currently possible limit. In this study, we analyze the performance of a unique hybrid self-regeneration ion exchange and reverse osmosis (HSIX-RO) system for the desalination of brackish groundwater. In the pretreatment step for protecting RO membrane fouling, the traditional homogenized strong acid cation exchanger (Purolite C100) and shallow shell structured strong acid cation exchanger (Purolite SSTC65) were compared for their efficiency in removing hardness cations from brackish groundwater. The fixed-bed column study concluded that C100 and SSTC65 can treat brackish water containing 250 mg L−1 Ca2+ and 10,000 mg L−1 NaCl at approximately 80 and 76 bed volumes (BVs), respectively. Studying the efficiency of RO system, it has % RO recovery of >70 % at an optimized pressure of 120 psi. An upscale self-regeneration ion exchange and RO system, i.e., HSIX-RO, that can be applied for a pilot-scale study was proposed. This proposed study suggested that HSIX-RO can be suited for the desalination of brackish groundwater with minimum use of an additional salt and can be self-sustained using an automated control. It was noted that the HSIX-RO system cannot be effectively applied to groundwater (TDS < 5000 mg L−1) nor seawater (TDS > 30,000 mg L−1) contained high Ca2+ and Mg2+ due to low regeneration efficiency and short length service runs, respectively.

Ion Exchange for the Purification of Co(II) or Ni(II) from Acidic and Ammonia Solutions in the Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

The recycling of critical metals like cobalt and nickel from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is of immense importance in sustainable manufacturing. This work aims to purify Co(II) and Ni(II) present in acidic and ammonia solutions using ion exchange. AG-1-X8 resin modified with thiocyanate anions (R4N+SCN− resin) was used to separate a small amount of Co(II) from HCl and H2SO4 solutions containing Ni(II) and Si(IV) at pH 3, and the effect of factors such as pulp density, shaking time, and Ni(II) concentration on the adsorption of Co(II) was investigated. The difference in the adsorption behaviour of metal ions onto the R4N+SCN− resin from HCl and H2SO4 solutions was insignificant. Increasing the Ni(II) concentration in the feed negatively affected the loading efficiency of Co(II). The complete elution of the metals from the loaded resin was attained with a 5% NH3 solution. Purolite C100 resin was selected for the purification of Co(II) from a 10% (v/v) NH3 solution containing a small amount of Ni(II), and the best conditions for the complete adsorption of both Co(II) and Ni(II) were determined. Selective elution of Ni(II) over Co(II) from the loaded resin was achieved by dilute H2SO4 solution. The purity of Co(II) in the solution after elution with 2.0 mol/L H2SO4 from the Ni(II) free resin was higher than 99.99%. Ion exchange was effective for purifying a weak acidic or ammonia solution in which there is a significant difference in the Co(II) and Ni(II) concentrations.

Application of ion exchange resins to reduce hardness and scaling of drinking water: Experimental and modeling

In this research, the performance of strong cationic Purolite C-100 Na+, Ambersep IR252 H+, Amberlite IR120 H+ ion exchange resins and an IRA402 OH- anionic resin have investigated to the reduction of hardness and TDS of drinking water in Bushehr, Iran. Also, to demonstrate the efficiency of these resins, the experimental variables affecting the ion exchange process such as contact time and adsorbent consumption were investigated. The results showed that the maximum adsorption capacity in the best operating condition was 48.01, 45 and 36.01 mg.g-1 for Purolite, Ambersep, and Amberlite resins, respectively. The maximum percentage of total hardness reduction parameters, calcium and magnesium ions reduction at best operating condition was 90.086%, 93.085%, 77.27% for Purolite ion exchange resins, 83.84%, 86.70%, 71.59% for Ambersep ion exchange resins and 69.83, 69.41, 69.32 for Amberlite ion exchange resins, respectively. Also, in the compound stage (the combination of cationic and anionic resins), at the best condition, 3 g/L of cationic resin and 12 g/L of anionic resin had the best efficiency in adjusting pH and reducing TDS. To study the adsorption kinetic process of calcium and magnesium ions by three strong cationic ion exchange resins, three pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and Morris-Weber models were employed. Among these models, the pseudo-second-order kinetic model had the best agreement with the experimental data. The models of Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dobinin-Radskvich were utilized for the equilibrium study of hardened ions adsorption (calcium and magnesium). From the equilibrium study of the absorption process, it was founded that this process involves both chemical and physical absorption and the Langmuir model has the best agreement with the experimental data.

SELECTION OF ION-EXCHANGE RESIN FOR EXTRACTION &#x0D; OF REE FROM COMPLEX SOLUTIONS DURING PROCESSING OF OIL CRACKING CATALYST

It was found that the ion exchange resins Purolite C100 H and Purolite S-957 can be used to extract lanthanum (III) ions from solutions. The values of the resin capacities for lan-thanum (III), iron (III) and aluminum and the ion distribution coefficients for both resins were determined. It is shown that according to the values of the separation coefficients, Purolite C100 H resin can be used for ion exchange separation of lanthanum ions from complex solutions

Photometric determination of rhenium in mixed hydrochloric-nitric acidic solutions formed upon processing of molibdenite concentrate

The results of spectrophotometric study of the system Re (VII) – HNO 3 – HCl – mercaptoacetic acid – Sn (II) are used to develop a sensitive and selective method of photocolorimetric determination of rhenium in acid nitrate-sulfate solutions formed upon decomposition of molybdenite concentrates with nitric acid and also to reveal trends in complexation of aliovalent rhenium with organic sulfur ligands. Ammonium perrhenate (AR-0) was purified on a Purolite C-100 cation exchanger. Solutions of mercaptoacetic (thioglycolic) acid were prepared from chemically pure Apolda chemical (Germany). Light absorption spectra were recorded on EPS-3T (Hitachi, Japan) and Specord M-40 (Carl Zeiss Jena, Germany) spectrophotometers; the optical density of the solutions was recorded on a KFK-2 (Russia) photocolorimeter. Optimal conditions for the formation of a colored complex compound with mercaptoacetic acid in a mixed hydrochloric-nitric acid solution were determined along with the composition and stability of the complex. The mechanism of redox reactions that occur during complexation is proposed. A technique for monitoring the rhenium content in the products of hydrometallurgical processing of molybdenite concentrates is developed. The procedure provides rhenium determination in the presence of accompanying elements (Mo, Cu, Fe, Ni, etc.) and oxidizing agents (>120 g/liter The developed procedure includes preliminary separation of molybdenum and other interfering impurities by selective sorption of ions on a strongly basic anionite (ChFO) followed by their desorption with a 5 M HNO 3 solution and subsequent photocolorimetric determination of rhenium in the eluate in the form of an orange-yellow (λ max = 460 nm) mixes-ligand complex of Re (III) of assumed composition [Re(L) 3 NOCl]–, where L — is mercaptoacetic acid anion. The developed method of rhenium determination was used in analysis of effluents of washing sulfuric acid taken from the sulfuric acid workshop of the copper smelting plant of Almalyk MMC JSC (Uzbekistan).

Synthesis of lactide from lactic acid and its esters in the presence of rare-earth compounds

A procedure is described for the synthesis of lactide by dehydration of L-lactic acid and subsequent depolymerization of its oligomer mixture in the presence of yttrium(III) and praseodymium(III) oxides, as well as of cerium(III) chloride heptahydrate. The catalytic activity of yttrium and praseodymium sesquioxides was determined at different temperatures at the oligomerization and deoligomerization stages. Ethyl lactate was prepared in the presence of Purolite C100 MB cation exchange resin and subjected to oligomerization followed by thermal decomposition of oligoester and oligolactic acid mixture in the presence of yttrium(III) and praseodymium(III) oxides and aqueous cerium(III) chloride.

Thermal and spectroscopic analysis of Co(II)–Fe(III) polyglyoxylate obtained through the reaction of ethylene glycol with metal nitrates

The synthesis and thermal and spectroscopic studies of a new CoII–FeIII heteropolynuclear coordination compound are presented. The in situ oxidation product of ethylene glycol plays the role of ligand. Under specific working conditions, the reaction of ethylene glycol with FeIII and CoII nitrates in dilute acid solutions occurs with the oxidation of the former to glyoxylic acid, coordinated to the CoII and FeIII cations as glyoxylate anion (C2H2O4 2−), with simultaneous isolation of the heteropolynuclear coordination compound. In order to separate and identify the ligand, the synthesized coordination compound, having the composition formula Co4Fe10(L)9(OH)20(H2O)32·14H2O, where L is the glyoxylate anion, has been treated with R–H cationite (Purolite C-100). After the retention of the metal cations, the resulting glyoxylic acid was confirmed by measuring its physical constants, by specific reactions and through spectroscopic methods. The synthesized coordination compound was characterized by physical–chemical analysis, electronic spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and thermal analysis. Cobalt ferrite impurified with ferric oxide was obtained following the thermal decomposition of CoII–FeIII polyhydroxoglyoxylate. The oxides obtained through thermolysis were studied by FTIR, XRD, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and elemental analysis.

Trace Lead Removal in Drinking Water Using High Capacity Polymeric Supported Hydrated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Ferric oxide nanoparticles are environmentally benign and can be selective toward lead, especially in neutral to mildly alkaline pH of groundwater. However, due to very fine particles and low mechanical strength, it prevents these materials to apply in point of use filter or large scale fixed-bed adsorption. In this study, polymeric gel cation exchanger, Purolite C100, supported ferric oxide nanoparticles, C100-Fe, was synthesized, characterized, and tested with challenging water according to NSF standards 53. From SEM-EDX studies, it can imply that high concentration of iron can be doped and distributed within the gel phase structure of the C100 approximately 22% by mass. The TEM micrographs confirm the size of hydrated ferric oxide fall into the nanometer range about 10-60 mm. The fixed-bed adsorption experiments demonstrated that C100-Fe can remove lead below the stringent standard of 0.05 mg/L up to 15,000 BVs, whereas the GAC, GAC-Fe, and C100 can treat the same test water only 1200, 1700, and 3500 BVs, respectively. The results confirm that C100-Fe can be efficiently substituted to the traditional GAC for lead removal in drinking water.

Influence of pH on distribution coefficients of lithium and impurity elements in sorption

The possibility of purifying lithium-containing solutions to remove chemical impurities by sorption in the batch mode was examined. Sulfonic (KU 2-8, Purolite C100, Resinex KW-8), carboxylic (SG-1, Purolite C104FL, Resinex KW-H), and phosphoric acid (Purolite S957) cation-exchange resins were used as sorbents. The distribution coefficients of lithium and impurity elements (sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron) at different pH values were determined experimentally. The lithium/impurity separation factors were calculated.

Chemical fractionation and speciation modelling for optimization of ion-exchange processes to recover palladium from industrial wastewater.

Palladium is used in several industrial applications and, given its high intrinsic value, intense efforts are made to recover the element. In this hydrometallurgic perspective, ion-exchange (IEX) technologies are principal means. Yet, without incorporating the chemical and physical properties of the Pd present in real, plant-specific conditions, the recovery cannot reach its technical nor economic optimum. This study characterized a relevant Pd-containing waste stream of a mirror manufacturer to provide input for a speciation model, predicting the Pd speciation as a function of pH and chloride concentration. Besides the administered neutral PdCl2 form, both positively and negatively charged [PdCln](2-n) species occur depending on the chloride concentration in solution. Purolite C100 and Relite 2AS IEX resins were selected and applied in combination with other treatment steps to optimize the Pd recovery. A combination of the cation and anion exchange resins was found successful to quantitatively recover Pd. Given the fact that Pd was also primarily associated with particles, laboratory-scale experiments focused on physical removal of the Pd-containing flow were conducted, which showed that particle-bound Pd can already be removed by physical pre-treatment prior to IEX, while the ionic fraction remains fully susceptible to the IEX mechanism.

Nickel/nickel boride nanoparticles coated resin: A novel adsorbent for arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) removal

A novel adsorbent named nickel/nickel boride nanoparticles coated resin has been introduced for the removal of both As(III) and As(V) from water. Nickel/nickel boride nanoparticles were formed on Purolite C-100 resin successfully. Perlite, pumice, zeolite and silica gel were also tried as the support material. However, nickel/nickel boride nanoparticles on those materials were not stable. Optimal preparation conditions for nickel/nickel boride nanoparticles coated resin were established. In the batch method, initial pH did not significantly affect the arsenic removal efficiencies for As(III) and As(V) in the pH range 3.3–11.5. As(III) and As(V) were removed quantitatively from the solutions at all pHs. 15% and 10% decreases were observed for As(III) removal efficiency when the solution contained phosphate and silicate respectively. However, none of the ions studied showed significant effect on the As(V) removal efficiency. Isotherm studies indicate that the Langmuir model fits the experimental data better than the Freundlich model. The isotherms also showed that the adsorption is favorable. Maximum arsenic adsorption capacities were calculated as 23.4mg/g and 17.8mg/g for As(III) and As(V), respectively. The kinetics of the adsorption process were tested for the pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order and intra-particle diffusion models. The comparison among the models showed that the pseudo second-order model best described the adsorption kinetics. As(III) and As(V) could be desorbed from the adsorbent without any efficiency loose using a mixture containing NaCl and NaOH and, therefore, the adsorbent could be used several times. Ni/NixB-NPCR could reduce the concentration of both As(III) and As(V) below the maximum allowable concentration level (WHO limit, 10μg/L) from such high arsenic containing waters.

New methods to obtain carboxylic acids by oxidation reactions of 1,2-ethanediol with metallic nitrates

The oxidation reactions of 1,2 ethanediol (ethylene glycol, EG) with some metallic nitrates in diluted acid solutions were investigated. Under specific working conditions, the reactions take place by the oxidation of EG to glyoxylic acid or to oxalic acid, coordinated as glyoxylate anion or oxalate anion respectively, to the metal (II) cation, with the simultaneous isolation of some homopolynuclear coordination compounds. In order to separate and identify the ligand, the synthesized coordination compounds, having the composition formula [ML(H2O)x·yH2O]n and [ML′(H2O)·zH2O]n respectively, where L is the glyoxylate anion, L′ the oxalate anion and M one of the following metals (M = Mg, Co, Ni, Cu), have been treated with R–H cationite (Purolite C-100). After the retention of the metal cation, the glyoxylic acid or oxalic acid obtained have been subjected to analysis by specific reactions and spectroscopic methods.

Novel Electro-Fenton Approach for Regeneration of Activated Carbon

An electro-Fenton-based method was used to promote the regeneration of granular activated carbon (GAC) previously adsorbed with toluene. Electrochemical regeneration experiments were carried out using a standard laboratory electrochemical cell with carbon paste electrodes and a batch electrochemical reactor. For each system, a comparison was made using FeSO4 as a precursor salt in solution (homogeneous system) and an Fe-loaded ion-exchange resin (Purolite C-100, heterogeneous system), both in combination with electrogenerated H2O2 at the GAC cathode. In the two cases, high regeneration efficiencies were obtained in the presence of iron using appropriate conditions of applied potential and adsorption-polarization time. Consecutive loading and regeneration cycles of GAC were performed in the reactor without great loss of the adsorption properties, only reducing the regeneration efficiency by 1% per cycle during 10 cycles of treatment. Considering that, in the proposed resin-containing process, the use of Fe salts is avoided and that GAC cathodic polarization results in efficient cleaning and regeneration of the adsorbent material, this novel electro-Fenton approach could constitute an excellent alternative for regenerating activated carbon when compared to conventional methods.

Removal of zinc ions from aqueous solution using a cation exchange resin

The present study is concerned with the mass transfer and kinetics study of zinc ions removal from aqueous solution using a cation exchange resin packed in a rotating cylindrical basket reactor. The effect of various experimental parameters on the rate of zinc ion removal, such as initial zinc ion concentration, packed bed rotation speed and temperature has been investigated. In addition to find a suitable equilibrium isotherm and kinetic model for the zinc ion removal in a batch reactor. The experimental isotherm data were analyzed using the Langmuir, Freundlich and D–R equations. The equilibrium data fit well in the Langmuir isotherm. The experimental data were analyzed using four sorption kinetic models, pseudo-first and second-order equations, the Elovich and the intraparticle diffusion model equation, to determine the best fit equation for the biosorption of zinc ions onto purolite C-100 MH resin. Results show that the Elovich equation provides the best correlation for the biosorption process.

Removal of some heavy metal cations by synthetic resin purolite C100

The discharge of heavy metals into aquatic ecosystems has become a matter of concern over the last few decades. These pollutants are introduced into the aquatic systems significantly as a result of various industrial operations. This paper describes the adsorption behaviour of cation exchange resin purolite C100 with respect to Ce 4+, Fe 3+ and Pb 2+ in order to consider its application to purify metal finishing wastewaters. The batch method has been employed, using metal concentrations in solution ranging from 2.65 to 265 mg/L. The adsorption percentages (%) and distribution coefficient ( K d) were determined for the adsorption system in the aqueous media as a function of sorbate concentration. The experimental isotherm data were analyzed using the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin–Kaganer–Radushkevich (DKR) equations. It was found that the adsorption phenomena depend on charge density and hydrated ion diameter. According to the equilibrium studies, the metal ions sequence can be given as Ce 4+ > Fe 3+ > Pb 2+. These results show that cation exchange resin purolite C100 holds great potential to remove cationic heavy metal species from polluted wastewater.

Chromatographic separations and recovery of lead ions from a synthetic binary mixtures of some heavy metal using cation exchange resin

A simple solid phase extraction procedure on cation exchange resin Purolite C100 is presented. The procedure based on a column technique for separation and recovery of lead ions from synthetic binary mixtures. Equilibrium distribution coefficient, k d for the different metal ions such as Al(III), Fe(III), Ba(II) and Pb(II) in the presence of nitric acid and ammonium acetate solutions of variable concentrations was determined at 25 °C. The values of separation factor, α were evaluated. Quantitative separation of lead ions from a synthetic binary mixtures are based on the fact that ammonium acetate is a good elute for lead ions but fails to elute the other cations.

Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Determination of Lead and Cadmium in Waste Water Samples After Enrichment and Separation Using Purolite C-100 E Resin Filled in a Syringe-Mountable Filter

Abstract In this study a new hopeful enrichment/separation technique to substitute for batch and column techniques is described. Lead and cadmium were selected as analyte elements. The housing of a syringe mountable membrane filter was filled with Purolite C-100 E cationic resin and mounted to the tip of a plastic syringe. If the sample solution was drawn into the syringe in about 30 s passing through the resin and discharged again for the same length of time, the analyte elements were quantitatively retained at pH ≥ 2. The elements sorbed by the resin were then quantitatively eluted by drawing and discharging 2.5 M HCl as eluent, again at the same flow rates as those used in retention. The recoveries of Pb and Cd were 98.2 and 99%, respectively, with relative standard deviations of around ± 2%. Detection limits (3δ) were 15 µgL−1 for Pb and 10 µgL−1 for Cd. The elements could be concentrated by drawing and discharging several portions of sample successively but eluting only once. Pb and Cd in spiked wast...