Pure TCP Research Articles

Bovine-originated xenografts versus synthetic bone grafting materials in lateral maxillary sinus floor augmentation: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This study aimed to systematically compare the patients undergoing lateral MSFA therapies utilizing bovine-originated xenografts versus varied synthetic bone grafting materials. Pubmed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library were searched up to April 2023, compensated by a manual search in selected journals. Studies reporting histological outcomes (residual bone graft, newly formed bone, non-mineralized tissue) and clinical outcomes (implant survival, ISQ value) were included. Several analyses were performed, including meta-analysis, sensitivity study, and Egger's regression tests. Sixteen clinical/randomized control trials were included in this systematic review, among which 12 were enrolled in a meta-analysis. The percentage of newly formed bone within the grafted sinuses by hybrid HA/TCP was significantly higher than those by xenografts (WMD 2.85, 95%CI [0.72; 4.99]), but those grafted by pure HA (WMD -1.72, 95%CI [-3.15; -0.29]) or TCP (WMD -7.10, 95%CI [-13.02; -1.17]) were significantly lower than xenograft counterparts. The residual bone graft and non-mineralized tissue yielded by synthetic HA, TCP, and HA/TCP showed no significant differences with the xenograft group. The chemistry of grafted bone substitutes in lateral MSFA influenced the quantity of newly formed bone. Those grafted with hybrid HA/TCP yielded the highest amount of new bone compared to bovine-originated HA. However, this influence was not significant on residual bone graft and non-mineralizedtissue.

Hierarchically porous bone scaffold fabricated via direct foam writing with TCP/ZrO2 composite ink

Customizing bone scaffolds to mimic the hierarchically porous structure of natural bone presents a promising strategy for treating critical bone defects. Although low-cost direct ink writing (DIW) is often used to customize bone scaffolds, the limited print resolution made it difficult to print microporous structures. In this study, DIW was combined with the direct foam method to construct bone scaffolds with hierarchical and interconnected macro-micro porous structures. The foam stabilization mechanism of pure TCP was investigated to prepare TCP-enhanced ZrO2-based composite foam inks. Incorporating TCP endowed a richer interconnection structure to the composite foam. The printed bone scaffolds feature three scales of pore structure: interconnected macropores of 400–500 μm, bubble template pores of 50 μm, and open pores of <20 μm. The scaffold exhibited properties comparable to cancellous bone, such as 90 % porosity, 3.1 MPa compressive strength, and 1.0 GPa elastic modulus. In vitro experiments have demonstrated that cells can grow into the interior of the scaffold by following the connecting pores. And, incorporating TCP significantly enhances osteogenic protein and gene expression in bionic bone scaffolds. This facile and controllable approach offers an alternative solution to addressing the challenge of clinical implant shortages.

Disorder effects in NbTiN superconducting resonators

Disordered superconducting materials like NbTiN possess a high kinetic inductance fraction and an adjustable critical temperature, making them a good choice for low-temperature detectors. Their energy gap (Δ), critical temperature (T c), and quasiparticle density of states (QDOS) distribution, however, deviate from the classical BCS theory due to the disorder effects. The Usadel equation, which takes account of elastic scattering, non-elastic scattering, and electro–phonon coupling, can be applied to explain and describe these deviations. This paper presents numerical simulations of the disorder effects based on the Usadel equation to investigate their effects on the Δ, T c, QDOS distribution, and complex conductivity of the NbTiN film. Furthermore, NbTiN superconducting resonators with coplanar waveguide (CPW) structures are fabricated and characterized at different temperatures to validate our numerical simulations. The pair-breaking parameter α and the critical temperature in the pure state TcP of our NbTiN film are determined from the experimental results and numerical simulations. This study has significant implications for the development of low-temperature detectors made of disordered superconducting materials.

3D-Printed Composite Bioceramic Scaffolds for Bone and Cartilage Integrated Regeneration.

Osteoarthritis may result in both cartilage and subchondral bone damage. It is a significant challenge to simultaneously repair cartilage due to the distinct biological properties between cartilage and bone. Here, strontium copper tetrasilicate/β-tricalcium phosphate (Wesselsite[SrCuSi4O10]/Ca3(PO4)2, WES-TCP) composite scaffolds with different WES contents (1, 2, and 4 wt %) were fabricated via a three-dimensional (3D) printing method for the osteochondral regeneration. The physicochemical properties and biological activities of the scaffolds were systematically investigated. 2WES-TCP (WES-TCP with 2 wt % WES) composite scaffolds not only improved the compressive strength but also enhanced the proliferation of both rabbit bone mesenchymal stem cells (rBMSCs) and chondrocytes, as well as their differentiation. The in vivo study further confirmed that WES-TCP scaffolds significantly promoted the regeneration of both bone and cartilage tissue in rabbit osteochondral defects compared with pure TCP scaffolds owing to the sustained and controlled release of bioactive ions (Si, Cu, and Sr) from bioactive scaffolds. These results show that 3D-printed WES-TCP scaffolds with bilineage bioactivities take full advantage of the bifunctional properties of bioceramics to reconstruct the complex osteochondral interface, which broadens the approach to engineering therapeutic platforms for biomedical applications.

Bioadaptable bioactive glass-β-tricalcium phosphate scaffolds with TPMS-gyroid structure by stereolithography for bone regeneration

Bone defect repair remains a troubling problem in clinical orthopedics, which involves complex biological processes. Calcium phosphates (CaPs) have been widely used owing to their advantage of biocompatibility. However, single component and traditional fabrication methods cannot meet the requirements of bioadaptability during the tissue repair process. In this work, 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% wt% of BG-TCP (bioactive glass-β-tricalcium phosphate) bioresorbable scaffolds with triply-periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS)-gyroid structure were prepared by the stereolithography (SLA) technology. TPMS-gyroid structure provided an accurate mimicry of natural bone tissue, and the incorporation of BG improved the compressive strength of β-TCP matrix, matched with the defective bone (2–12 MPa). Rapid but tunable degradation kinetics (compared with pure TCP) of BG enabled the BG-TCP system to sh8ow adaptable biodegradability to new bone generation. In vitro studies have shown that composite scaffolds have better mechanical properties (7.82 MPa), and can released appropriate contents of calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium ions, which promoted the osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and angiogenic ability of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). Moreover, the in vivo assessment of rat femoral defect revealed that TPMS-structure-based TCP scaffolds accelerated bone ingrowth to the pores. Moreover, BG-TCP scaffolds, especially 15BG-TCP group, exhibited superior bone regeneration capacity at both 4 and 8 weeks, which achieved an optimal match between the rate of material degradation and tissue regeneration. In summary, this study provides insight into influences of bioactive components (BG) and bionic structures (TPMS) on the physical-chemical properties of materials, cell behavior and tissue regeneration, which offers a promising strategy to design bioadaptive ceramic scaffolds in the clinical treatment of bone defects.

Inclusion of an antiplatelet agent inside into β-cyclodextrin for biochemical applications with diverse authentications

We aim to develop the complex of ticlopidine hydrochloride (TCP) with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and to investigate its antibacterial and cytotoxic activities. The complex was characterized by various physicochemical as well as spectroscopic techniques suggesting the successful inclusion of TCP molecule into the β-CD cavity. TG analysis showed that the thermal stability of TCP was found to improve after complexation. Molecular docking study speculated the most preferred orientation of TCP molecule within the binding pocket of β-CD cavity. In vitro antibacterial activity test demonstrated that the TCP-β-CD complex displayed better activity than pure TCP. TCP-β-CD complex (IC50 = 24 μM) also exhibited significant in vitro cytotoxic activity than pure TCP (IC50 = 44 μM) towards human kidney cancer cell line (ACHN). Furthermore, the complex induces the ROS generation in ACHN cells more pronouncedly than TCP alone, suggesting the increased apoptotic activity of TCP after complexation. These results reveals that inclusion of TCP using β-CD could lead to stabilization of TCP and efficient display of its antibacterial and cytotoxic activities.

The Effect of Stromal-Derived Factor 1α on Osteoinduction Properties of Porous β-Tricalcium Phosphate Bioceramics.

β-Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) is a type of bioceramic material which is commonly used for hard tissue repair and famous of its remarkable biocompatibility and osteoconductivity with similar composition to natural bone. However, TCP lacks osteoindcutive properties. Stromal-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α) can promote bone regeneration with excellent osteoinduction effect. In this study, SDF-1α was loaded into TCP to investigate the in vitro effects of SDF-1α on the osteoinductive properties of TCP. In vitro studies showed that SDF-1α/TCP scaffold significantly stimulated the expression of osteopontin and osteocalcin. As to the in vivo studies, the rabbit bone defect model showed that SDF-1α stimulated more new bone formation. In conclusion, SDF-1α/TCP bioceramic scaffolds could further promote bone regeneration compared to pure TCP bioceramics.

A study on calcium phosphate/barium titanate composites: phase characterization, piezoelectric property, and cytocompatibility

A series of hydroxyapatite/barium titanate (HA/BT) and tricalcium phosphate/barium titanate (TCP/BT) composites were prepared in various mixing ratios and sintered at temperatures between 500 and 1300 °C using the powder metallurgy method. Sintering was performed under different atmospheres to evaluate the effect of the atmosphere on the phase stability of the composites. BT phase showed slightly higher phase stability in TCP/BT composites than in HA/BT composites. BT with low concentration behaved as a stabilizer of α-TCP. A reaction between HA and BT occurred at about 900 °C yielding byproducts of CaTiO3 and Ba2TiO4, at the expense of both HA and BT phases. CaTiO3 and Ba2TiO4 phases associated with low BT concentrations were observed in the composites sintered at temperatures between 1100 and 1300 °C. The HA/BT composites having BT concentrations less than 95 wt.% did not show any measurable piezoelectric response. Composites with BT promoted osteoblast adhesion even better than pure HA and TCP.

Fabrication and Characterization of Nano-TCP Doped with Various Ions for Bone Implant Applications

Calcium phosphate (CaP) based bioceramics are frequently used in dental and orthopedic field as bone grafts due to their chemical and structural similarities to the human hard tissues. Strontium (Sr2+), fluoride (F−) and chloride (Cl-) ions are known to play important role in bone and tooth microstructure. The aim of this study was to combine tri-calcium phosphates doped with strontium, chloride and fluoride ions. A precipitation procedure was applied for synthesizing pure and doped tri-calcium phosphates. The undoped and doped samples were sintered at 1100°C for 1 h. Incorporation of the strontium (Sr+2) and chloride (Cl-) ions decreased the density of the samples while, the fluoride (F-) co-doped densities increased with respect to pure TCP. The XRD results revealed the existence of the α-TCP and β-TCP phases. SEM results confirmed the sintering temperature and amount of dopants had prominent effect on the grain sizes of the samples.

Neutralization method for tricalcium phosphate production: Optimization using response surface methodology

The tricalcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 (TCP) has been synthesizing in an optimized condition based on the surface modeling methodology; this material has been produced using the neutralization synthesis reaction and extensively characterized by XRD, FT-IR, and ICP. Based on those characterizations, the obtention of this material was strongly depending on the final molar ratio of the reagents, which is influenced by a couple of hydrodynamic and static factors. For an efficient optimization of the TCP production, the central composite design (CCD) was established regarding the acid flow (20–100 mL.min−1), the maturation time (10–240 min), and the reaction pH (5.3–7.6) as they are the most influents factors. The combination of the response surface methodology and the central composite design was used to assess the influence and magnitude of each factor contribution. The CCD results and their subsequent analysis of variance (ANOVA) provides an empirical equation on the expected response; the proposed empirical model provides a value of R² and R²Adjusted more than 0.92 and 0.82 respectively. In fact, the analysis of the residuals shows that the experimental response follows a Henry line and present a perfect normality. Among the model factors, The Pareto analysis reveals that the acid flow and the pH and some of their interactions have a significant contribution to the desired molar ratio. The optimization with the Centrale composite design had illustrated both that the optimal conditions for the obtention of a pure TCP, are as the following: an acid flow (60 mL.min−1), a maturation time (60 min) and reaction pH of (6). And also, it was proved that the model can predict the results of other experiments in the same experimental domain.

Effects of PCL, PEG and PLGA polymers on curcumin release from calcium phosphate matrix for in vitro and in vivo bone regeneration

Calcium phosphate materials are widely used as bone-like scaffolds or coating for metallic hip and knee implants due to their excellent biocompatibility, compositional similarity to natural bone and controllable bioresorbability. Local delivery of drugs or osteogenic factors from scaffolds and implants are required over a desired period of time for an effectual treatment of various musculoskeletal disorders. Curcumin, an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory molecule, enhances osteoblastic activity in addition to its anti-osteoclastic activity. However, due to its poor solubility and high intestinal liver metabolism, it showed limited oral efficacy in various preclinical and clinical studies. To enhance its bioavailability and to provide higher release, we have used poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly ethylene glycol (PEG) and poly lactide co glycolide (PLGA) as the polymeric system to enable continuous release of curcumin from the hydroxyapatite matrix for 22 days. Additionally, curcumin was incorporated in plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite coated Ti6Al4V substrate to study in vitro cell material interaction using human fetal osteoblast (hFOB) cells for load bearing implants. MTT cell viability assay and morphological characterization by FESEM showed highest cell viability with samples coated with curcumin-PCL-PEG. Finally, 3D printed interconnected macro porous β-TCP scaffolds were prepared and curcumin-PCL-PEG was loaded to assess the effects of curcumin on in vivo bone regeneration. The presence of curcumin in TCP results in enhanced bone formation after 6 weeks. Complete mineralized bone formation increased from 29.6% to 44.9% in curcumin-coated scaffolds compared to pure TCP. Results show that local release of curcumin can be designed for both load bearing or non-load bearing implants with the aid of polymers, which can be considered an excellent candidate for wound healing and tissue regeneration applications in bone tissue engineering.

Elucidating the role of 45S5 bioglass content in the density and flexural strength of robocast β-TCP/45S5 composites

Composite bioinks made of 45S5 Bioglass® and β-TCP (β-tricalcium phosphate) were elaborated from raw powders using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a single multifunctional processing additive. The developed inks were used to fabricate straight rods, which were then sintered at 1000 °C and 1100 °C. The densities and bending strengths of the sintered rods were measured, and both parameters were found to increase with the 45S5 bioglass content, most dramatically beyond 60 vol% of 45S5 bioglass. X-Ray Diffraction analysis revealed the occurrence of significant changes in the phase composition of the material, including formation of new phases like parawollastonite, rhenanite or hydroxyapatite. Comparison of the results obtained for pure TCP with those of previous studies, where other processing additives different from CMC were used, suggests that CMC might be hampering the sintering of β-TCP.

Simulation of cortico-cancellous bone structure by 3D printing of bilayer calcium phosphate-based scaffolds

Traditional methods of fabrication for porous bone scaffolds are unable to accurately mimic the desirable cortico-cancellous morphology and the structure of the bone. In this study, 3D printing of a β-Tricalcium phosphate (TCP)-based paste was used to develop scaffolds simulating the two distinct cortical and cancellous layers of the natural bone. Laser microscope imaging showed that the pore sizes were 242.2±24.3µm and 410.5±27.9µm for the cortical and cancellous layers, respectively. Micro CT analysis revealed overall porosity and interconnectivity of 61.8±1.4% and 208707.5±52405, respectively. Mechanical properties were within the range of human cancellous bone with 10.0±2.4MPa strength and 55.5±5.7MPa young's modulus. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the phase composition of the printed scaffolds was almost identical to pure TCP. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and cell vitality assessment indicated significant osteoblastic proliferation on the surface of the scaffolds. The gene expression analysis showed an increase in the level of Collagen I (Col I), Osteonectin (ON), Ostocalcin (OC), and Osteopontin (OPN) with a significant increase in OC and OPN at day 10. In conclusion, 3D printing can be used to develop a TCP-based scaffold with controllable and reproducible microstructures and favourable in vitro biological properties with potential to be further developed to be used for clinical bone regeneration.

Immunohistochemical response in rats of beta-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) with or without BMP-2 in the production of collagen matrix critical defects

This study aimed to assess the biological response of BMP-2 (bone morphogenetic protein-2) in supplementation with β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) as a carrier in the bone healing of surgical defects in rats’ calvaria. A critical-size defect (5mm in diameter) was filled with β-TCP alone or added with that plus 5mg of BMP-2 at 5, 15, and 30 postoperative days. Histomorphometric and immunohistochemical (osteocalcin, collagen type I, and metalloproteinase-9) analysis was performed to assess the features of bone healing. Histological behavior and collagen type I labeling showed increased formation of the collagen matrix, leading to a higher percentage of newly formed bone and biomaterial for tissue and more total mineralization of pure TCP when compared to the other groups. The supplementation with BMP-2 promoted faster TCP remodeling; however, there was no statistically significant difference for the bone formed in both groups (P>0.05). Collagen-matrix formation and new bone formation reached maximum levels when the defects were filled with pure TCP, even exceeding the levels from BMP-2 supplementation.

Continuous cellularization of calcium phosphate hybrid scaffolds induced by plasma polymer activation

The generation of hybrid materials based on β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) and various biodegradable polymers like poly(l-lactide-co-d,l-lactide) (PLA) represents a common approach to overcoming the disadvantages of pure TCP devices. These disadvantages lie in TCP's mechanical properties, such as brittleness. The positive characteristic of PLA — improvement of compressive strength of calcium phosphate scaffolds – is diametrically opposed to its cell attractiveness. Therefore, the objective of this work was to optimize osteoblast migration and cellularization inside a three-dimensionally (3D) printed, PLA polymer stabilized TCP hybrid scaffold by a plasma polymer process depositing amino groups via allylamine. MG-63 osteoblastic cells inside the 10mm hybrid scaffold were dynamically cultivated for 14days in a 3D model system integrated in a perfusion reactor. The whole TCP/PLA hybrid scaffold was continuously colonized due to plasma polymerized allylamine activation inducing the migration potential of osteoblasts.

Policy-Based and QoE-Aware Content Delivery Using Q-Learning Method

With the increasing popularity of various video services, video content is becoming a dominant traffic type in mobile networks. This poses a serious challenge to mobile network operators as well as service providers when it comes to delivering video content in a controllable and resource-efficient way to multiple users. Meeting various quality of experience and quality of service requirements is a difficult task especially in a wireless environment where several different priority based user classes can be included. This paper proposes an intelligent and context-aware application level fair scheduler, which is based on reinforcement learning and which can dynamically adjust relevant scheduling parameters in reaction to specific events or context information. The implemented Q-learning method is analyzed with reference to the delivery of progressive video streaming services employed by the likes of YouTube, Daily Motion, etc. In this regard, we study the performance observed by the end users in a scenario where the backhaul link in a mobile network infrastructure may become congested. Using the application level scheduler to intelligently orchestrate between multiple concurrent flows will minimize the number of buffer starvation events and thus enable smooth playback in cases where a pure TCP based delivery would fail. We also demonstrate the effectiveness of the Q-learning based scheduler to provide service separation between the user classes and fairness within a user class.

Fabrication of individual alginate-TCP scaffolds for bone tissue engineering by means of powder printing

The development of polymer-calcium phosphate composite scaffolds with tailored architectures and properties has great potential for bone regeneration. Herein, we aimed to improve the functional performance of brittle ceramic scaffolds by developing a promising biopolymer–ceramic network. For this purpose, two strategies, namely, direct printing of a powder composition consisting of a 60:40 mixture of α/β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) powder and alginate powder or vacuum infiltration of printed TCP scaffolds with an alginate solution, were tracked. Results of structural characterization revealed that the scaffolds printed with 2.5 wt% alginate-modified TCP powders presented a uniformly distributed and interfusing alginate TCP network. Mechanical results indicated a significant increase in strength, energy to failure and reliability of powder-modified scaffolds with an alginate content in the educts of 2.5 wt% when compared to pure TCP, as well as to TCP scaffolds containing 5 wt% or 7.5 wt% in the educts, in both dry and wet states. Culture of human osteoblast cells on these scaffolds also demonstrated a great improvement of cell proliferation and cell viability. While in the case of powder-mixed alginate TCP scaffolds, isolated alginate gels were formed between the calcium phosphate crystals, the vacuum-infiltration strategy resulted in the covering of the surface and internal pores of the TCP scaffold with a thin alginate film. Furthermore, the prediction of the scaffolds’ critical fracture conditions under more complex stress states by the applied Mohr fracture criterion confirmed the potential of the powder-modified scaffolds with 2.5 wt% alginate in the educts as structural biomaterial for bone tissue engineering.

SiO2 and ZnO dopants in three-dimensionally printed tricalcium phosphate bone tissue engineering scaffolds enhance osteogenesis and angiogenesis in vivo

Calcium phosphate (CaP) scaffolds with three-dimensionally-interconnected pores play an important role in mechanical interlocking and biological fixation in bone implant applications. CaPs alone, however, are only osteoconductive (able to guide bone growth). Much attention has been given to the incorporation of biologics and pharmacologics to add osteoinductive (able to cause new bone growth) properties to CaP materials. Because biologics and pharmacologics are generally delicate compounds and also subject to increased regulatory scrutiny, there is a need to investigate alternative methods to introduce osteoinductivity to CaP materials. In this study silica (SiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) have been incorporated into three-dimensional printed β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) scaffolds to investigate their potential to trigger osteoinduction in vivo. Silicon and zinc are trace elements that are common in bone and have also been shown to have many beneficial properties, from increased bone regeneration to angiogenesis. Implants were placed in bicortical femur defects introduced to a murine model for up to 16weeks. The addition of dopants into TCP increased the capacity for new early bone formation by modulating collagen I production and osteocalcin production. Neovascularization was found to be up to three times more than the pure TCP control group. The findings from this study indicate that the combination of SiO2 and ZnO dopants in TCP may be a viable alternative to introducing osteoinductive properties to CaPs.

Controlled release of gentamicin from gelatin/genipin reinforced beta-tricalcium phosphate scaffold for the treatment of osteomyelitis.

Infection of the bone (osteomyelitis) remains one of the most challenging problems in the field of orthopedic surgery. The limitations of systemic antibiotics administration include undesired side effects, systemic toxicity, patient discomfort, and development of bacterial resistance. In this study, we developed a bactericidal gentamicin-doped beta-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffold reinforced with a gelatin/genipin hydrogel (G-TCP). Our data showed that the gentamicin-doped G-TCP had a much longer drug releasing period, while the gentamicin was completely released from pure TCP cements (B-TCP) within one day. In addition, the release profile of G-TCP exhibited an initial burst followed by a zero-order release. One standard strain, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus, ATCC25923) was selected to evaluate the antibacterial activity and therapeutic effect of this scaffold. G-TCP significantly inhibited growth of S. aureus both in vitro and in vivo. In a rat osteomyelitis model, osteomyelitis could be totally cured after implantation of G-TCP for three weeks. We propose that the gelatin/genipin-gentamicin TCP scaffold represents one of the promising gentamicin releasing bone scaffolds in treating osteomyelitis.

Preparation and Characterization of Modified Biphasic Calcium Phosphate Ceramics

Biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) ceramic is commonly used in the biomedical applications particularly as a bone substitute due to its biocompatibility and directly bond to bones. However, the mechanical strength is quite poor. Therefore, well known biocompatible and strong ceramics such as SiO2, ZrO2 and TiO2 were added to improve the strength of BCP. BCP powder with HA/TCP ratios of 70/30 (HAP7030) was obtained by controlling the calcining temperature of the mixture between a pure HA and TCP. SiO2, ZrO2 and TiO2 powder with 2, 5 and 10 %wt were mixed with the HAP7030 powder by ball milling in ethanol. The mixtures were dried, pressed and sintered at 1100°C for 2 hrs. XRD and SEM were used to determine crystal structures and morphology of the sintered samples, respectively. Physical properties and flexural strength of samples were measured. Results showed that the bending strength of HAP7030 sample was rather improved by adding TiO2 than the addition of SiO2 or ZrO2. With increasing TiO2, HAP7030 strength was superior and HAP7030 with 10 %wt of TiO2 obtained the optimum bending strength around 61 MPa. However, the addition of TiO2 induced the thermal stability of HA/TCP, in which HA completely decomposed to β-TCP in this study.