Pulsed Power Accelerator Research Articles

Z pinches as intense x-ray sources for high-energy density physics applications

Fast Z-pinch implosions can efficiently convert the stored electrical energy in a pulsed-power accelerator into x rays. These x rays are produced when an imploding cylindrical plasma, driven by the magnetic field pressure associated with very large axial currents, stagnates upon the cylindrical axis of symmetry. On the Saturn pulsed-power accelerator [R. B. Spielman et al., in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Dense Z Pinches, Laguna Beach, CA, 1989, edited by N. R. Pereira, J. Davis, and N. Rostoker (American Institute of Physics, New York, 1989), p. 3] at Sandia National Laboratories, for example, currents of 6–8 MA with a rise time of less than 50 ns are driven through cylindrically symmetric loads, producing implosion velocities as high as 108 cm/s and x-ray energies exceeding 400 kJ. Hydromagnetic Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities and cylindrical load symmetry are critical, limiting factors in determining the assembled plasma densities and temperatures, and thus in the x-ray energies and pulse widths that can be produced on these accelerators. In recent experiments on the Saturn accelerator, these implosion nonuniformities have been minimized by using wire arrays with as many as 192 wires. Increasing the wire number produced significant improvements in the pinched plasma quality, reproducibility, and x-ray output power. X-ray pulse widths of less than 5 ns and peak powers of 75±10 TW have been achieved with arrays of 120 tungsten wires. Similar loads have recently been fielded on the Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator (PBFA II), producing x-ray energies in excess of 1.8 MJ at powers in excess of 160 TW. These intense x-ray sources offer the potential for performing many new basic physics and fusion-relevant experiments.

Inertial confinement fusion ablator physics experiments on Saturn and Nova

The Saturn pulsed power accelerator [R. B. Spielman et al., in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Dense Z-pinches, Laguna Beach, CA, 1989, edited by N. R. Pereira, J. Davis, and N. Rostoker (American Institute of Physics, New York, 1989), p. 3] at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) and the Nova laser [J. T. Hunt and D. R. Speck, Opt. Eng. 28, 461 (1989)] at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) have been used to explore techniques for studying the behavior of ablator material in x-ray radiation environments comparable in magnitude, spectrum, and duration to those that would be experienced in National Ignition Facility (NIF) hohlraums [J. D. Lindl, Phys. Plasmas 2, 3933 (1995)]. The large x-ray outputs available from the Saturn pulsed-power-driven z pinch have enabled us to drive hohlraums of full NIF ignition scale size at radiation temperatures and time scales comparable to those required for the low-power foot pulse of an ignition capsule. The high-intensity drives available in the Nova laser have allowed us to study capsule ablator physics in smaller-scale hohlraums at radiation temperatures and time scales relevant to the peak power pulse for an ignition capsule. Taken together, these experiments have pointed the way to possible techniques for testing radiation-hydrodynamics code predictions of radiation flow, opacity, equation of state, and ablator shock velocity over the range of radiation environments that will be encountered in a NIF hohlraum.

The X-1 Z-pinch driver

X-1 is a program initiative to develop the next-generation laboratory X-ray source using fast Z-pinch drivers. X-1 will provide unique applications utility to high-energy density physics, inertial confinement fusion, and radiation effects simulation research. The advent in the 1980's of pulsed power accelerators capable of delivering tens of terawatts to imploding plasma loads led to a quantum improvement in Z-pinch performance by reducing the implosion time to less than 100 ns. Further progress in Z-pinch performance capabilities was achieved in 1996, using a cylindrical wire-array load, and led to the production of 85 TW, 350-500 kJ of X-rays using the Saturn accelerator at Sandia. The PBFA-II accelerator has been converted to drive Z-pinch loads (PBFA-Z), and will provide a factor of 2 increase in current, and 4 in energy, over that provided by Saturn. X-1 is the next step beyond PBFA-Z and, as presently envisioned, represents a factor of 8 increase in energy. It will require a /spl sim/360 TW, /spl sim/100 ns pulsed power generator to impart /spl sim/16 MJ kinetic energy to the reference imploding plasma load. A baseline concept for X-1 has been developed. It utilizes a highly modular, robust architecture with demonstrated performance reliability.

Potential enhancement of warm X-ray dose from a reflexing bremsstrahlung diode

The potential for generating intense bursts of warm x rays (20 to 60 keV) using electron reflexing diodes on pulsed-power accelerators is evaluated with the TIGER Monte Carlo code, showing that hundreds of kilojoules of warm x rays can be generated under idealized conditions, for a Jupiter (60-MA, 5-MV, 100-ns) class accelerator. The calculations are compared with data from Gamble-II experiments and applied to two suggested Jupiter diode configurations. If the simultaneous irradiation from the high-energy tail of the bremsstrahlung which accompanies the warm x rays is a concern, then the reflexing technique is shown to be limited to the irradiation of targets thinner than /spl sim/400 /spl mu/m for low-Z targets like aluminum and thinner than /spl sim/5 /spl mu/m for high-Z targets like gold.

Compact RADAN electron accelerators for testing new radiation technologies and sterilization

We present parameters and some applications of table-top RADAN pulsed power accelerators with both sealed-off and pumped electron tubes. The electron energy is up to 200 keV, the current up to 1 kA, the pulse width 4 ns, and the e-beam output power at a repetition rate of 100 p.p.s. is up to 120 W. The weight of accelerators is about 30 kg.

Hypervelocity launching and impact experiments on the Karlsruhe light ion facility KALIF

The Karlsruhe Light Ion Facility KALIF is a 1.7 MV, 600 kA, 50 ns FWHM pulsed power accelerator delivering up to 40 kJ of proton beam energy to a 7- to 10-mm-diameter focal spot. With peak power densities up to ∼1 TW/cm2, and proton ranges in condensed matter of 10 to 20 μm, specific energy depositions of several MJ/g at deposition rates of the order of 100 TW/g are obtained. We have investigated the potential of KALIF as a shock wave generator in both, direct drive and impact experiments. In the following, a description of the facility, the ion sources, and of the experimental setup is given. Experimental results of ablative foil acceleration histories and on the uniformity will be presented as well as a simple model, which allows to explain details of the velocity profiles by the properties of the ion pulse. So far, we have accelerated aluminum foils of 10 to d 30 μm thickness to velocities beyond 12 km/s. Experiments using multilayer targets are under way, for which simulations predict velocities up to 20 km/s. Finally, some results of dynamic tensile strength measurements will be shown, in which strain rates up to 107s−1 under nanosecond load durations were realized.

An intense proton beam diagnostic using the 7Li(p,γ)8Be →141Pr(γ,n)140Pr(β+) nuclear reaction sequence

An indirect nuclear activation diagnostic was developed to measure the proton fluence onto a thick target of lithium metal located in the diode region of pulsed power accelerators. This diagnostic uses the nuclear reaction sequence 7Li(p,γ)8Be→141Pr(γ,n)140Pr(β+) to relate the proton fluence to induced 140Pr activity. This diagnostic was calibrated using a Van de Graaff accelerator. Energetic protons were focused onto a thick lithium target driving the 7Li(p,γ)8Be reaction. The resulting prompt gamma rays activated a secondary 141Pr target via the reaction 141Pr(γ,n)140Pr(β+). A NaI gamma-gamma coincidence detector system was used to measure the induced 140Pr activity as a function of proton energy and proton fluence. These data yielded a calibration curve for proton energies ranging from 2 to 12 MeV. Since deuterium impurities can interfere with this diagnostic by driving the reaction sequence 7Li(d,n)8Be→141Pr(n,2n)140Pr, a similar calibration experiment was conducted using deuterium ions. These data yielded a correction factor that can be used to determine the deuterium contribution to the 140Pr activity, providing that the deuterium beam fraction is known.

Range and straggling effects on CR-39/range-filter ion energy measurements

The CR-39/range-filter technique measures ion energy by determining the maximum filter thickness which ions can penetrate. CR-39 located behind the filter records the ions. This method is used to measure peak voltage in pulsed power accelerators. We investigated range and straggling effects in this diagnostic by exposing it to 8- and 15-MeV protons for both Al and Ta filters. The range agreed with published values to better than ±6%. The range straggling decreased for higher incident ion energy and lower atomic number, as expected, although there were differences up to a factor of 1.7 between the experimental values and predictions. The dependence of the track diameter distribution on ion energy enabled us to establish a signature which is characteristic of ions which penetrate a filter, via straggling. These results can be used to evaluate the errors present when this diagnostic is used to measure accelerator voltage.

Demonstration of reduced source size broadening with a Johann focusing elliptical spectrograph and theory of the second-order source broadening

A Johann focusing elliptical spectrograph has been developed for the measurement of high-resolution x-ray spectra from a spatially extended source. The instrument was designed for the study of high-density, high-temperature plasmas produced by z-pinch implosion or ion-beam bombardment on pulsed-power accelerators. We have constructed and tested this instrument, and have demonstrated an improvement in resolution over what we obtain with a standard circular detector when viewing an extended source. Analytic results for the second-order source broadening due to a finite source size have been obtained and verified by ray tracing. Also given is a simple parametric equation for the Johann crossover curve in terms of either the ellipse sweep angle λ or the Bragg angle θB.

Summary (I). Experiments

The conference has shown some important advances toward the solution of problems required for inertial fusion. We can tentatively categorize as solved, or nearly solved, the following problems: Marx prefires, Marx jitter, gas-switch prefires, gas-switch jitter, power combination of multi-modules, high-current beam divergence (in barreltype, Applied-B/MID diodes), and preheat. In addition, there are a set of mature problems with promising solutions: pulsed power accelerator efficiency, ion sources, and the electron kinetics of an extractor ion diode. Newer problems that were addressed at the meeting but still require considerable work include: impedance control of efficient ion diodes, diagnostics for both beams and targets, the further development of target design tools and their experimental verification, targetfabrication processes to make the nearly perfect targets required for inertial fusion, channel formation and beam transport in those channels at the power levels required for fusion, and pulse-shaping.

Progress in light ion beam fusion research on PBFA II

PBFA II is a 100 TW pulsed power accelerator constructed at Sandia National Laboratories for use in the light ion fusion program. The objective of PBFA II is to accelerate and focus upon an inertial confinement fusion (ICF) target a lithium beam with sufficient energy, power, and power density to perform ignition scaling experiments. The technologies used in PBFA II include: primary energy storage and compression with 6 MV, low-inductance Marx generators, pulse forming in water-insulated, water-dielectric lines with self-closing water switches, module synchronization using laser-triggered, 6 MV multistage gas switches, voltage addition in vacuum using self-magnetically-insulated biconic transmission lines, inductive energy storage and pulse compression using a fast-opening plasma erosion switch, beam formation using a magnetically-insulated ion diode, and space-charge and current-neutralized beam propagation to the target in a gas-filled cell. The first multimodule shot was on December 11, 1985.

Radiation diagnostics for x-ray laser experiments on Proto-II

X-ray laser experiments on the Sandia Proto-II accelerator (10 TW, 40-ns FWHM, 0.125 Ω) use a wide array of radiation diagnostics. Precise x-ray measurements are difficult in the environment of a large pulsed power accelerator. Machine shock, EMP, and large x-ray fluences are significant problems. X-ray diodes and resistive bolometers provide excellent time-resolved information. Crystal and grazing-incidence grating spectrographs and x-ray pinhole cameras give time-integrated data. A recent major effort at Sandia has been the development of time-resolved x-ray pinhole cameras, crystal spectrographs, and grazing-incidence spectrographs. These diagnostics use microchannel plates or a scintillator and streak camera system to obtain time resolution. Precise alignment, nanosecond time resolution, and high spectral precision are all needed for successful x-ray laser experiments. We will present descriptions of the diagnostics and data taken on recent x-ray laser experiments. This work was supported by the U.S. DOE.

Flashover lithium ion source development for large pulsed power accelerators

The Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator II (PBFA II), a light-ion pulsed power accelerator intended for inertial confinement fusion (ICF) applications, is currently under construction at Sandia National Laboratories. The accelerator will deliver a 30 MV, 5 MA lithium beam from an Applied-B diode to drive an ICF target. The ion source for this diode will require a thin (∼1 mm), dense (1016 cm−2) anode plasma layer of singly ionized lithium over an anode area of 103 cm2. One type of source being investigated is the flashover ion source, which generates the anode plasma via vacuum flashover of a lithium-bearing dielectric material. Experiments with a LiF flashover source on the 0.03 TW Nereus accelerator have shown that contaminant ions account for as much as 70% of the extracted ion beam current. To overcome this, we have explored in-diode cleaning of the externally prepared anode surface by glow discharge cleaning and vacuum baking as well as in-diode preparation of the anode surface by vacuum evaporation of the lithium dielectric. Lithium-bearing dielectric materials which have been investigated include LiF, LiI, LiNO3, and Li3N. These techniques have resulted in a two to threefold improvement in the extracted lithium ion purity. As a result, a glow-discharge cleaned LiF flashover source will be used for initial pulsed-power testing on PBFA II.

Ion source studies for particle beam accelerators

High power particle beam accelerators are being developed for use in inertial confinement fusion applications. These pulsed power accelerators require sources of low atomic number ions (e.g., protons, deuterons, carbon, or lithium). The sources must be of high purity for efficient accelerator operation and proper target coupling, must have a rapid ‘‘turn-on,’’ and must be compatible with ion diode configurations under development. A particular type of source presently being investigated is the flashover ion source which generates ions by means of the vacuum flashover of an insulating anode material when the high voltage pulse arrives at the diode. We have developed an applied-magnetic-field, extraction ion diode for the 0.03 TW Nereus accelerator specifically to investigate these sources. Extracted ion species are measured by means of a Thomson-parabola ion analyzer, dB/dt current monitors, and Faraday cups. Experiments have been performed to investigate the surface flashover mechanism and the effects of various dielectric source materials, anode preparation methods (including rf glow discharge cleaning), and vacuum conditions on ion species and diode operation.

A Flexible Automated Waveform Recorder Data-Acquisition Program

Software has been developed to record signals in automated data-acquisition systems that support pulsed power accelerators at Sandia. The software achieves flexibility by being entirely table driven. Before each accelerator shot the program processes input files and then sets up and checks out all programmable hardware. After the shot, the program automatically reads each signal, corrects it, and stores it in a disc file. The software is currently running in three different facilities with up to 60 waveform recorder channels.

Continuing Studies of Plasma Erosion Switches for Power Conditioning on Multiterawatt Pulsed Power Accelerators

Recent PITHON experiments with plasma erosion switches (PES) have extended the range of operation of the switches by about 50 percent, in terms of closed time and charge passing through the switch. The quantity of charge passed through the switch has been increased to as much as 35 mC. Currents as large as 1 MA and voltages as great as 1.8 MV have been switched off to be diverted to a downstream load. The impedance of the erosion switch can be described as having three stages: 1) essentially zero impedance, 2) a transitional opening phase, and 3) an impedance which is very large (greater than 5 Ω) in comparson with the subohm downstream load. Current diagnostics, consisting of Rogowski coils and segmented shunts, have been successfully developed to monitor the current which propagates to the load region. These monitors have measured rise times as short as 38 ns and slew rates as great as 1014 A/s at the load. With wire array loads, the pulse conditioning of the switch has been observed to reduce the magnitude of the current losses in the feed which are present when no switch is used. Correlations have been made between the switch closed time, voltage, current, and power with the feed inductance and the generator power injected into the magnetic insulated transmission line (MITL).