Typical Pulse Research Articles

Peale's dolphins (Lagenorhynchus australis) are acoustic mergers between dolphins and porpoises

Most dolphin species produce broadband clicks for echolocation (i.e., biosonar pulses), and whistles and burst-pulsed calls for communication purposes. A few dolphin species in the southern hemisphere are reported to only produce clicks of a more narrowband high-frequency (NBHF) type, very similar to the clicks produced by porpoises. Here, we use underwater acoustic recordings of Peale's dolphins (Lagenorhynchus australis) in the Falkland Islands to show that they also can produce broadband clicks and tonal whistle sounds similar to other whistling odontocete species in addition to NBHF clicks. Whistles and broadband clicks co-occurred in seven out of twelve acoustic encounters with Peale's dolphins. The co-occurrence of whistles and broadband signals, which were predominately burst-pulses, produced by Peale's dolphins in this study points to a probable function as communication signals. Furthermore, the measured frequency and time parameters of Peale's dolphin whistles were comparable with whistles recorded from four additional species in the Lagenorhynchus genus in various parts of their ranges. This is the only species of Lagenorhynchus recorded to date that can relax acoustic crypsis in a similar manner as Heaviside's (Cephalorhynchus heavisidii), Commerson's (C. commersonii), and Hector's (C. hectori) dolphins. Our findings make it likely that additional NBHF species have the ability to generate both pulsed signal types and whistles, and further challenges the acoustic classification of NBHF species.

Non-destructive three-dimensional characterization of micronized pulse seeds using X-ray microcomputed tomography

Non-destructive quality evaluation techniques are vital in 3D visualization and quantification of microstructural changes in micronized pulse kernels. The effects of micronization (infrared heating) on pulse microstructure are highly dependent on its treatment efficiency. This study employed X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to characterize, visualize, and quantify the microstructural changes non-destructively. Four major pulses, chickpeas, fava beans, lentils, and yellow peas, were subjected to micronization at 180 °C of surface temperature for four different infrared (IR) exposure times (60, 80, 100, and 120 s). All samples were pre-conditioned at 20 % moisture content before the micronization process. Morphometric parameters (pore size, diameter, and pore distribution) were qualitatively measured using the reconstructed 2D and 3D images acquired by the X-ray micro-CT. Physico-chemical parameters, including loss of moisture (%), total porosity (%), volumetric expansion/shrinkage (%), and density (%) were quantified using Micro-CTAn software. The results showed that the porosity is significantly increased (p < 0.05) in all pulse types ranging from 0.60 ± 0.42 % to 12.1 ± 2.68 %, at prolonged IR exposure time. Significant volume expansion ranging from 3.82 %–33.56 % was shown by chickpeas and yellow peas, while fava beans and lentils showed volume shrinkage ranging from 4.26 %–24.31 % after micronization. Furthermore, density was decreased ranging from 0.79 ± 0.25% to 33.49 ± 0.42 % with increased IR time for all pulses except fava beans. The authors found that the microstructural changes in all tested pulses were optimum at 100 s–120 s of exposure time. Results emphasize the higher potential in modifying the microstructure of pulses using micronization processing. Therefore, future studies are suggested on developing predictive models to explore the relationships between microstructural changes and techno-functional properties.

Effect of burst mode modulation ultrashort pulse laser on the laser processing transparent dielectrics

The effect of ultrashort pulse modulation on the formation of a modified zone of a transparent dielectric was investigated. The use of a femtosecond fiber laser in burst mode made it possible to control the energy that enters the processed material and thereby influence the geometry of the modification zone. In the course of the study, various types of pulses were tested—linear, sinusoidal, exponential, etc. It was noted that pulse modulation significantly affects the shape of the modified zone. Energy thresholds have been determined that lead to internal defects in the form of cracks.

Chirped Pulses Meet Quantum Dots: Innovations, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

AbstractShaped laser pulses have been remarkably effective in investigating various aspects of light–matter interactions spanning a broad range of research. Chirped laser pulses exhibiting a time‐varying frequency, or quadratic spectral phase, form a crucial category in the group of shaped laser pulses. This type of pulses have made a ubiquitous presence from spectroscopic applications to developments in high‐power laser technology, and from nanophotonics to quantum optical communication, ever since their introduction. In the case of quantum technologies recently, substantial efforts are being invested toward achieving a truly scalable architecture. Concurrently, it is important to develop methods to produce robust photon sources. In this context, semiconductor quantum dots hold great potential, due to their exceptional photophysical properties and on‐demand operating nature. Concerning the scalability aspect of semiconductor quantum dots, it is advantageous to develop a simple, yet robust method to generate photon states from it. Chirped pulse excitation has been widely demonstrated as a robust and efficient state preparation scheme in quantum dots, thereby boosting its applicability as a stable photon source in a real‐world scenario. Despite the rapid growth and advancements in laser technologies, the generation and control of chirped laser pulses can be demanding. Here, an overview of a selected few approaches is presented to tailor and characterize chirped pulses for the efficient excitation of a quantum dot source. By taking the chirped‐pulse‐induced adiabatic rapid passage process in quantum dot as an example, numerical design examples are presented along with experimental advantages and challenges in each method and conclude with an outlook on future perspectives.

An ultra-low quiescent current power-on reset circuit with DDPG method

An ultra-low quiescent current power-on reset (POR) circuit with double-delay pulse generation (DDPG) method is presented in this paper. The circuit is designed for non-volatile memory (NVM) systems, aiming to ensure reliable initialization and enhance overall efficiency. To address the challenge of inaccurate trigger-point voltage caused by process, voltage, temperature (PVT) and ramp time variations, a novel pulse generation method is proposed. Additionally, the circuit further improves the reliability of pulse duration through the utilization of low-cost current reference generators. Implemented in standard 40 nm CMOS technology, the delay-based POR circuit consumes only 0.24 nA quiescent current and occupies a compact area of 25.6μm×102μm. The simulation results demonstrate a typical pulse duration time of 28μs, with a temperature coefficient (TC) of 101.4 ppm/°C. The high reliability and low overhead of this circuit make it suitable for NVM systems and other fast power-on applications.

A Patient Management System Using an Edge Computing-Based IoT Pulse Oximeter

Edge computing can provide core functions such as data collection and analysis without connecting to a centralized server. The convergence of edge computing and IoT devices has enabled medical institutions to collect patient data in real time, improving the efficiency of short- and long-term patient management. Medical equipment measures a large amount of biosignal data for analyzing diseases and patient health conditions. However, analyzing and monitoring biosignal data using a centralized server or cloud limit the medical institutions’ ability to analyze patients’ conditions in real time, preventing prompt treatment. Therefore, edge computing can enhance the efficiency of patient biosignal data collection and analysis for patient management systems. Analyzing biosignals using edge computing can eliminate the wait time present in cloud computing. Hence, this study aims to develop an IoT pulse oximeter using edge computing for medical institutions and proposes an architecture for providing a real-time monitoring service. The proposed system utilizes five types of raw (IR AC, IR DC, red AC, red DC, AMB), pulse, and SpO2 data measured using IoT pulse oximeters. Edge nodes are installed in every hospital ward to collect, analyze, and monitor patient biosignal data through a wireless network. The collected biosignal data are transmitted to the cloud for managing and monitoring the data of all patients. This system enables medical institutions to collect and analyze raw biosignal data in real time, by which an integrated management system can be established by connecting various types of IoT-based medical equipment.

Dynamics of different pulse types in a single-/dual-wavelength mode-locked fiber laser

Dynamics of different pulse types in a single-/dual-wavelength mode-locked fiber laser

Numerical simulation of a pulse hailstorm in the plateau region in southwestern China

Pulse hailstorms over southwestern China generally produce small hailstones with diameters <20 mm, causing nonnegligible damage to crops. This study examines the mechanisms behind the typical pulse hailstorms which frequently occur in plateau regions in southwestern China. Utilizing radar observations and the Cloud Model 1 (CM1) numerical model developed by George Bryan, the influence of environmental factors on pulse hailstorms and the associated small hailstones is investigated. The results indicate that: firstly, hailstones are primarily generated from frozen droplets, which further grow through collecting supercooled liquid water; secondly, a higher convective available potential energy (CAPE) and lower low-level relative humidity (RH) lead to the raising of convection initiation height; and lastly, higher CAPE values result in smaller hailstones on the surface due to the intensified hailstone melting process caused by higher melting layer and warmer temperatures within the warm layer (>0 °C) in this situation.

Quantitative classification of velocity pulse-like ground motions based on an adaptive response spectrum-based decomposition method

Pulse-like ground motions generally contain low-frequency velocity pulse with large amplitude, which can lead to severe damage or even collapse of near-fault structures. This study aims to proposed an adaptive decomposition method and corresponding identifying approach for pulse-like records. Firstly, an adaptive response spectrum-based decomposition (ARSD) method is proposed to decompose the records into several intrinsic mode functions (IMF) and their periods are identified by peak-point method. The decomposed results are compared with two representative methods, ensemble empirical-mode decomposition (EEMD) and variation mode decomposition (VMD). The results show that the proposed method can effectively avoid the mode mixing appears in the decomposed results by EEMD and generates similar results with those by the VMD. Then the low-frequency pulse is extracted by composing the key IMFs with the period and energy change larger than 0.5 s and 0.1. Based on the results of visual inspection method, the threshold of energy-based pulse indicator factor in general form and exponential form is calibrated to 0.26 and 0.30 respectively. The results show that the exponential form can improve identification rate of pulse-like records. The pulse extraction and classification results of the proposed method are comprehensively compared with three benchmark methods. The classification results by the proposed method are generally consistent with the three methods. Moreover, all the four methods can accurately detect the non-pulse records. And the proposed method could detect the most pulse-like records, followed by the Zhai's method, while the Feng's and Baker's methods detected the least pulse type records. The corresponding identification rates are 91.04%, 80.60%, 63.43%, and 63.06%, respectively. Finally, the periods of the records with single mode and multiple modes estimated by the proposed method and three benchmark methods are compared. The estimated periods of the records with single mode by the proposed method are highly consistent with those by the three benchmark methods, while this consistency for the estimated periods of records with multiple modes is reduced at some extent. This is due to the interference of multiple modes embedded in the records to the pulse identification.

AMIDR: A Complete Pulse Method for Measuring Cathode Solid-State Diffusivity

Lithium transport within cathode material is driven by diffusion. While fast cathode diffusion is desired, solid-state diffusivity is one of the most difficult cell material properties to measure. However, it is an important property to understand as cathode capacity is often limited by poor diffusivity. GITT (Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique) is a common diffusivity measurement method. This technique is accomplished by applying a series of constant current pulses to a cell and analyzing the voltage response. While easy to use, this method only measures near the surface of the active material by assuming that it takes the geometry of a semi-infinite plane. This approximation means that GITT is only accurate when measuring the very initial voltage response. However, the voltage response cannot be analyzed too early as this may amplify error produced by CDL (double layer capacitance) and RI (interface resistance) found at the cathode-electrolyte interface which GITT does not account for. EIS (Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy), an AC method, is better suited for distinguishing CDL/RI from diffusivity but also struggles to evaluate diffusivity beyond the surface of active material within a reasonable time frame1. In addition, instruments capable of quality EIS are often cost prohibitive compared to DC cell testers.The voltage responses after the first few moments of a pulse are relevant when evaluating cell behaviour in real-world applications and should be considered to produce comprehensive measurements of diffusivity and its performance impact. AMID (Atlung Method for Intercalant Diffusion) is a multi-rate pulse method produced by this lab which uses a series of pulses, both short/fast and long/slow, and an approximation-free analytical model (developed by Sven Atlung) for diffusion in a spherical particle, not a semi-infinite plane2. However, AMID cannot differentiate diffusion impedance from resistance and therefore requires that resistance be considered negligible. In addition, while AMID mathematics are free of approximations, the typical multi-rate pulse protocol does require that series of pulses be approximated as singular pulses3. Lastly, the multi-rate pulse protocol limits the state-of-charge resolution of diffusivity measurements.AMIDR (Atlung Method for Intercalant Diffusion and Resistance) incorporates a GITT-style single pulse protocol with AMID-style mathematics modified to account for resistance as shown in Figure 1b). AMIDR collects pulse data with a pseudo-logarithmic time distribution. This means that the same number of data points is collected in 0.1-1.0 seconds, 1.0-10 seconds, 10-100 seconds and so on. Unlike GITT which measures diffusivity at an early arbitrary point in a pulse, AMIDR considers the entire length of a pulse comprehensively. Fractional capacity is calculated for each datapoint by dividing the actual capacity with the ideal “impedance-free” capacity expected at that voltage as shown in Fig 1c). These fractional capacity values, normalized from 0-1, are fitted to the modified Atlung model. This modified Atlung model is nearly the same as the original Atlung model except an additional term is added for capacity limited by resistance. Unlike AMID, AMIDR measures both diffusivity and resistance simultaneously by using both as fitting parameters. Lastly, while CDL is usually small enough for RI to behave simply like ohmic resistance on relatively short time scales (>0.1 seconds), AMIDR has the option to account for CDL/RI when relevant such as near the bottom of a complete discharge.AMIDR is a new diffusivity measurement method tailored for cathode material in Li-ion batteries. By combining the advantages of various previous diffusivity methods, AMIDR eliminates many of their concerns and sources of error such as sampling of only the material surface, alternate confounding sources of impedance, and expensive equipment as seen in Figure 1a). When paired with proper cell design (i.e. ultra-low single layer cathode loading to remove pore impedance and reference electrodes to remove anode impedance), AMIDR can produce high resolution diffusivity measurements with improved accuracy and applicability to real-world cell performance.References C. Deng and W. Lu, Journal of Power Sources, 473, 228613 (2020).A. Liu et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 168, 070503 (2021).M. Doyle, J. Newman, and J. Reimers, Journal of Power Sources, 52, 211–216 (1994). Figure 1. (a) Comparison of various Diffusivity measurements. (b) The modified Atlung model for diffusion in a spherical particle. (c) How pulse data is converted to the unitless Atlung model. Figure 1

Acoustic recording tags provide insight into the springtime acoustic behavior of sei whales in Massachusetts Bay.

The acoustic ecology of sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis) is poorly understood due to limited direct observation of the behavioral context of sound production and individual behavior. Suction cup-attached acoustic recording tags were deployed on sei whales to unambiguously assign call types and explore the acoustic behavior of this endangered species. Twelve tag deployments resulted in ∼173 h of acoustic data and 1030 calls. Sound types included downsweeps and three previously undescribed call types. Knocks were short duration (<1 s), with an average peak frequency of 330 Hz. Pulse type 1 and pulse type 2 calls, typically produced in sequences, were short in duration (0.08 and 0.28 s) and low in average peak frequency (50 and 26 Hz), with relatively high received levels. Average call rates for all call types combined were three calls per hour, but increased during twilight. Sex differences in call type usage included a higher use of pulses by females and knocks by males. Calls were almost exclusively produced at depths <10 m, although whales rarely dove deeper in this study. These data provide a more comprehensive picture of the acoustic and behavioral ecology of sei whales than previously possible, which can inform future conservation efforts for this endangered species.

Evaporation induced acoustic emissions in microfluidic vessels.

Fluid flow processes such as drainage and evaporation in porous media are crucial in geological and biological systems. The motion of the displacement front of a moving fluid through multi-phase interfaces is often associated with abrupt mechanical energy release, detectable as acoustic emissions (AEs). The exact origin of these pulses and their damping mechanisms are still subjects of debate. Here, we study the characteristics of such AEs during evaporation of water from artificial microfluidic vessels, inspired by the physiology of vascular water-transport in plants. From the extracted settling times of the recorded AEs, we identify three pulse types and attribute their origins to bubble formation, snap-off events and rapid pore invasion. We also show that the resonance frequencies between 10 and 70 kHz present in specific pulse types decrease with increasing vessel radius (ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 mm) and length (ranging from 2.5 to 10.0 mm). Our findings provide insight into evaporation-induced AEs from microfluidic systems, and their potential use in non-invasive inspection or vascular health monitoring.

Electroconvulsive therapy parameters for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia

AbstractIntroductionBehavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSD) are a heterogenous group of non‐cognitive symptoms impacting up to 90% of patients with dementia, and include emotional disturbance, psychosis, agitation, aberrant motor behavior, and circadian rhythm disturbance. Multiple reviews have found ECT to be efficacious in treating BPSD that have not responded to other interventions. However, no published guidelines exist to inform clinicians about how protocols for ECT should be implemented in the treatment of BPSD. This study aims to identify ECT parameters commonly utilized for BPSD in the literature.MethodsMEDLINE and APA PsychInfo were searched from database inception until September 2022. Two reviewers independently screened and full text reviewed the retrieved articles. Articles included in the full text review stage discussed how ECT is implemented for patients experiencing BPSD.ResultsAfter duplicate removal, 800 unique citations were identified for screening. Of these, 160 were included in full text review. 32 studies were ultimately included (Figure 1). Characteristics of included studies are highlighted in Figures 2 and 3.Most studies utilized thrice weekly ECT, however, twice weekly was suggested to carry a lower risk of ECT‐related cognitive side effects. The number of sessions needed for response ranged between 2‐15, with improvement typically observed within 3‐6 treatments. The choice between unilateral and bilateral placement rests on weighing the risk of confusion with improved clinical response. Multiple authors recommend starting with unilateral treatment to reduce cognitive side effects and switching to bilateral if response is inadequate after 3‐5 sessions. Typical pulse width was 0.30‐0.37ms for ultrabrief and 1‐2s for brief treatment. Minimum recommendations for adequate seizure duration varied from 25 to 30 seconds on EEG and 15 to 20 seconds by observed motor movements. Stimulus dosage ranged between 1.5‐2.5x seizure threshold for bilateral placement, and 4‐6x seizure threshold for unilateral placement. Maintenance ECT was commonly used to reduce the risk of relapse.DiscussionECT is both safe and efficacious for patients with BPSD, and the present review focuses on commonly implemented ECT parameters in the literature. Notably, studies are limited by inconsistent reporting of ECT parameters and short follow‐up durations.

Observation of three kinds of bound solitons in a black phosphorus-based erbium fiber laser

We describe the experimental finding of three kinds of bound solitons in the Erbium-doped fiber lasers based on saturable absorber of black phosphorus. The passively mode-locked laser can obtain stretched-pulse state, double-pulse and four-pulse bound state with the sech2-shaped pulse profile. The laser can also realize Lorentzian autocorrelation trace with the duration of approximately 562 fs and deliver Lorentzian double-pulse bound state with pulse separations of approximately 5.04 ps by properly adjusting the polarization state. This project demonstrates that the same fiber laser can obtain different types of bound state pulses, which lays a foundation for further research into bound state pulses.

Generation of ultrashort Rayleigh wave pulses using the combination of temporal and spatial pulse compression technique

Rayleigh waves generated by electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) have been widely used in nondestructive testing and evaluations. To improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR) and spatial resolution of Rayleigh waves simultaneously, the combination of temporal and spatial pulse compression (TSPC) technique is proposed. By analyzing the topology diagram of the typical pulse compression technique, a frequency modulated signal acts as the stretcher and a wavelength modulated meander line coil acts as the compressor. Experimental results indicate that the ultrasound fields of Rayleigh waves using the proposed TSPC technique show a spike shape in the spatial domain. Compared with the typical meander-line coil EMATs, the TSPC technique shows significant improvement of the generated Rayleigh waves. The SNR has increased by 12 dB while the main lobe width has decreased by about 98%.

Inverse scattering transform for the coupled modified complex short pulse equation: Riemann–Hilbert approach and soliton solutions

In this paper, we develop a Riemann–Hilbert (RH) approach to the inverse scattering transform for the coupled modified complex short pulse (cmcSP) equation, which appeared as a reduction of the four-component system of short pulse type introduced by Popowicz in 2017. This approach allows us to present the general soliton solutions of the cmcSP equation in parametric form. Compared with the early results for the scalar modified complex short pulse equation, the cmcSP equation possesses richer soliton solutions, which include smooth solitons, cuspons, breathers and their various interactions.

Dual states based reinforcement learning for fast MR scan and image reconstruction

Incomplete phase encoding with few phases is an effective under-sampling manner of fast Magnetic Resonance (MR) scan. The key is how to choose important slice-specific phases. Reinforcement Learning (RL) is powerful for sequential decision-making and therefore is feasible for slice-specific phase selection. Existing RL-based methods employ time-consuming reconstruction-oriented Deep Neural Networks (DNN) to generate/transit states from which phase selection and reward computation are performed. The advantage is that the selected phases and the corresponding partial k-space data match the DNN for image reconstruction. The disadvantage lies in the impossibility of deciding/selecting a phase in as short as several milliseconds required in the timings of a typical pulse sequence. To simultaneously keep the matching advantage and avoid the inefficiency disadvantage, we propose a dual-state-based RL framework. A visible Parameter-Free (PF) state obtained by inverse Fast Fourier transform and a hidden DNN state obtained by applying a time-consuming reconstruction-oriented DNN on the visible state are called dual states. Visible states are used as input of phase decision networks and hidden states are used for computing reward to evaluate the decision networks. Because the time-consuming hidden states are merely involved in training process and only efficient visible states are computed in inference process, the proposed method is very efficient. Moreover, we demonstrate that incorporating the phase-indicator vector (containing sequentially selected phases) as an additional input to the transformer used for reconstructing from undersampled MR images can significantly improve image reconstruction accuracy. Experiments on fastMRI dataset demonstrate effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed method.

Influence of pulse-tail energy of short-pulse CO2 laser in drilling of various glasses

In a short-pulse CO2 laser based on discharge excitation, there is a pulse tail that depends on the device configuration and operating conditions. The pulse tail is longer than the spike pulse and causes thermal effects such as a crack, heat-affected zones (HAZ), and so on. There are various types of glass having different physical constants related to heat, such as the thermal expansion coefficient and the softening point. Even if the same CO2 laser pulse is radiated onto glass, the processing results may differ depending on the glass material. Four types of glass, namely, crown glass, soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass, and synthetic quartz glass were irradiated with two types of short CO2 laser pulses, one with a large pulse tail and one with a small pulse tail, at a repetition rate of 200 Hz and a fluence per pulse of 22 J/cm2. As the processing characteristics, the ratios of the surface hole diameter and the HAZ diameter to the irradiation diameter, as well as the drilling depth, were investigated. The pulse-tail energy of the short CO2 laser pulses did not affect the surface hole diameter. In the glasses with small softening points of 740 °C or less, the pulse-tail energy of short CO2 laser pulses affected the HAZ with a large number of pulse irradiations with a total irradiation fluence of 2000 J/cm2 or more. The short CO2 laser pulses with a small tail produced a smaller HAZ than the short CO2 laser pulses with a large tail. In drilling with a large number of pulse irradiations, the short CO2 laser pulses with a small tail produced deeper drilling than the short CO2 laser pulses with a large tail. The glass material did not affect the surface hole diameter and the drilling depth. The glass material affected the HAZ.

An elaborative discussion on the potentiality, functional characteristics, curative effects, antinutritional factors, processing, and industrial applications of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) as a versatile legume

SummaryGlobally, 60% of protein consumption comes from plant‐based sources. By exploring the potential of plant‐based proteins and incorporating them into diverse food options, we can not only enhance the sustainability of our food systems but also contribute to a more balanced and environmentally conscious society. Due to the limited availability of conventional food proteins, there has been a persistent exploration for alternative legume sources for addressing the need for protein‐based foods. Faba bean is a type of pulse that stands out among other legumes due to its high protein content (26.1%) and dietary fibre (25.0%). Faba beans and their derivatives have been suggested as potentially beneficial foods for individuals with diabetes and hypertension. However, faba beans contain some antinutritional factors (ANFs). These antinutrients can have adverse effects on digestion and nutrient absorption. Various strategies like thermal and non‐thermal processing methods have been employed to reduce the ANF content and improve nutritional functionality in faba beans. The applications of faba beans and their potential as replacements for traditional ingredients in various food products are described. By utilising processed fava bean products, novel food formulations and applications can be created, catering to the growing demand for healthier and functional food options.

GENERATION OF RECTANGULAR NANOSECOND ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSES WITH A PICOSECONDS RISE FRONT

A method for generation of ultra-wideband electromagnetic pulses with a nanosecond duration and a picosecond rise time has been studied. The emitter is a horn antenna with a photoconductive switch irradiated by laser pulses. It has been shown that the duration of ultra-wideband electromagnetic pulses is determined by the length of the antenna and the semiconductor material, and the rising front is determined by the front of the laser pulses used to initiate the photoconductive switch. The work shows typical pulse durations of ~1 ns with a rising edge of up to ~34 ps.