Pulsed Phase Thermography Research Articles

红外脉冲相位热像检测效率提高方法

红外脉冲相位热像检测效率提高方法

Pulsed phase thermography imaging of fatigue-loaded composite adhesively bonded joints

We applied pulsed phase thermography to image and size damage in adhesively bonded joints. Specifically, the initiation and propagation of fatigue-induced damage in single lap joints with carbon fiber epoxy adherends was investigated. Lap joint specimens with various levels of manufacturing defects were fabricated and loaded in low-cycle fatigue. A calibration specimen with artificial defects was used to design a threshold algorithm for sizing of the damaged regions. The dominant failure mode in specimens without manufacturing defects was fiber-failure, whereas joints failing prematurely demonstrated adhesive failure. Imaging of the lap joints after regular number of fatigue cycles revealed that manufacturing defects could be detected and the resulting, imminent adhesive failure could be identified prior to joint failure. Additionally, the extent of this damage could be accurately estimated through the sizing algorithm. Due to the brittle nature of fiber-failure, it could not be detected prior to failure of the joint, however this was not critical, as the goal was to identify premature failure of the adhesively bonded joint.

Eddy Current Volume Heating Thermography and Phase Analysis for Imaging Characterization of Interface Delamination in CFRP

Imaging inspection is highly demanded in the optimization of industry processes. Optical imaging inspection is not applicable for inside defects, while infrared (IR) imaging inspection can provide information about internal structure of objects. Eddy current thermography is an emerging IR imaging inspection technique for conductive materials or objects. This paper presents eddy current volume heating thermography (ECVHT) and phase analysis for delamination inspection in carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRPs) based on the previously proposed eddy current pulsed phase thermography (ECPPT). The proposed method has been verified through experimental studies under both transmission and reflection modes. After discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of temperature responses, the phasegram and phase spectra can be used to image and characterize interface delamination in CFRP due to elimination of nonuniform heating effect and carbon fiber structures. With the whole temperature response processed by DFT, carbon fiber structures and delamination can be differentiated due to periodic oscillation of phase spectra. With temperature response in cooling phase processed by DFT, some characteristic features can be extracted to construct the new phase images according to the shape of phase spectra. In all, using ECVHT and phase analysis, imaging characterization for delamination can get much better performance than conventional visible optical inspection system and eddy current pulsed thermography.

Identification of kissing defects in adhesive bonds using infrared thermography

A carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) adhesively bonded single lap joint sample is used for comparing the detection of different defect types using pulsed phase thermography (PPT). Firstly, a polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) insert, of the type widely used to simulate defects in composite materials, was added to the bond line of the joint. Liquid layer kissing defects were simulated using silicon grease. PPT clearly identified the PTFE but not the silicon grease contamination. The PPT identified the silicon grease defect when the joint was loaded. It is postulated that kissing defects can be detected using thermography if a small load is applied to the joint, as loading opens the defect and produces a gap that provides sufficient thermal contrast for detection. Thermoelastic stress analysis (TSA) is used to validate the approach. On-site application is addressed both in terms of the load application and the use of low cost infrared (IR) detectors.

Numerical simulation of phase images and depth reconstruction in pulsed phase thermography

In this work we apply the finite element (FE) method to simulate the results of pulsed phase thermography experiments on laminated composite plates. Specifically, the goal is to simulate the phase component of reflected thermal waves and therefore verify the calculation of defect depth through the identification of the defect blind frequency. The calculation of phase components requires a higher spatial and temporal resolution than that of the calculation of the reflected temperature. An FE modeling strategy is presented, including the estimation of the defect thermal properties, which in this case is represented as a foam insert impregnated with epoxy resin. A comparison of meshing strategies using tetrahedral and hexahedral elements reveals that temperature errors in the tetrahedral results are amplified in the calculation of phase images and blind frequencies. Finally, we investigate the linearity of the measured diffusion length (based on the blind frequency) as a function of defect depth. The simulations demonstrate a nonlinear relationship between the defect depth and diffusion length, calculated from the blind frequency, consistent with previous experimental observations.

Determination of temperature sequence length in pulse phase thermography

In pulse phase thermography (PPT), the temperature sequence length affects the efficiency of phase calculation and the ability to distinguish defects. To improve the efficiency and ability of detection, the influence of the temperature sequence length on the phase difference was analyzed. This was carried out using finite element simulations under the conditions of different substrate thicknesses, defect depths, defect diameters, heat power densities and material properties. The simulation results show that each defect at a different depth has a corresponding optimal temperature length topt, which can provide the maximal phase difference and the best ability to distinguish defects in materials of certain properties. topt varies with the material properties, the defect depth and diameter, and the substrate thickness. The numerical topt formula was fitted through simulation results, and the experiment was carried out on aluminum alloy specimens with flat-bottomed holes as artificial defects. Through the experimental results, the relationship between phase difference and temperature sequence length is shown similar to that in simulation. When topt is calculated using the fitting formula, we can approximately obtain the maximal phase difference and the best defect phase image. topt can be determined by its change rule and the numerical formula, which can provide better defect distinguishing ability, avoid redundant temperature sequence, and improve the detection efficiency.

Instrumentation of integrally stiffened composite panel with fiber Bragg grating sensors for vibration measurements

We evaluate the performance of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors for the measurement of dynamic strains in complex composite structures. The particular structure used in this study is an integrally stiffened composite panel for which the stiffeners and skin are fabricated in a single layup and cure process. Surface-mounted FBG sensors are bonded to the panels after curing, whereas embedded FBG sensors are successfully incorporated during the fabrication process. A finite element model was also constructed of the stiffened panel. The panels were subjected to repeated impacts and the post-impact vibration response of the panel was measured through the FBG sensor responses. Little change to the global response of the panel was observed after the repeated impacts, through the dynamic response of the surface-mounted FBGs. Pulsed phase thermography and micro-computer-tomography imaging of the panel confirmed that the damage was localized near the impact locations, producing negligible changes to the global response of the panel. All of the embedded FBG sensors survived the fabrication and multiple impacts; however, as these were embedded close to the neutral axis of the panel, they were not very sensitive to the vibration modes. Excitation of the panel near the first natural frequency did produce a measurable response in the FBG sensors, confirming their functionality.

Eddy current pulsed phase thermography considering volumetric induction heating for delamination evaluation in carbon fiber reinforced polymers

Anisotropy and inhomogeneity of carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs) result in that many traditional non-destructive inspection techniques are inapplicable on the delamination evaluation. This letter introduces eddy current pulsed phase thermography (ECPPT) for CFRPs evaluation considering volumetric induction heating due to small electrical conductivity, abnormal thermal wave propagation, and Fourier analysis. The proposed methods were verified through experimental studies under transmission and reflection modes. Using ECPPT, the influence of the non-uniform heating effect and carbon fiber structures can be suppressed, and then delamination detectability can be improved dramatically over eddy current pulsed thermography.

Review on Non-Destructive Testing Technique of Eddy Current Pulsed Thermography

This paper introduces the theory of eddy current pulsed thermography and expounds the research status of eddy current pulsed thermography in application and information extraction. Thermographic signal reconstruction, pulsed phase thermography, principal component analysis were introuduced in this paper and listed some fusion multiple methods to acquire information from infrared image. At last, it summarizes research progress, existing problem and deelopment of eddy current pulsed thermography.

An investigation of pulsed phase thermography for detection of disbonds in HIP-bonded beryllium tiles in ITER normal heat flux first wall (NHF FW) components

Pulsed phase thermography (PPT) is a non destructive examination (NDE) technique, traditionally used in the Aerospace Industry for inspection of composite structures, which combines characteristics and benefits of flash thermography and lock-in thermography into a single, rapid inspection technique. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness of PPT as a means of inspection for the bond between the beryllium (Be) tiles and the copper alloy (CuCrZr) heatsink of the ITER NHF FW components. This is a critical area dictating the functional integrity of these components, as single tile detachment in service could result in cascade failure. PPT has advantages over existing thermography techniques using heated water which stress the component, and the non-invasive, non-contact nature presents advantages over existing ultrasonic methods. The rapid and non-contact nature of PPT also gives potential for in-service inspections as well as a quality measure for as-manufactured components. The technique has been appraised via experimental trials using ITER first wall mockups with pre-existing disbonds confirmed via ultrasonic tests, partnered with finite element simulations to verify experimental observations. This paper will present the results of the investigation.

Investigation on Coating Uniformity of High-Temperature Alloy with SiC Thermal Barrier Coating Using Pulsed Infrared Thermographic Technique

The SiC thermal barrier coating thickness uniformity of a high-temperature alloy was investigated using a pulsed infrared thermographic image. A thermal quadrupole method is used to solve a one-dimensional thermal conduction model. The temperature of the high-temperature alloy with SiC coating is directly affected by the pulse intensity of optical excitation; furthermore, the relation between the SiC thermal barrier coating thickness and temperature difference is obtained. Pulsed phase thermography and principal component analysis are applied to extract the characteristic information from thermal image sequences, and the signal-to-noise ratio of the thermal wave signal is clearly improved. The thermal contrast of the SiC thermal barrier coating thickness is related to the optical pulse intensity and infrared camera frame rate. Furthermore, a relatively simple quantitative method is developed to estimate the SiC thermal barrier coating thickness uniformity of the high-temperature alloy, and the coating thickness measurement using pulsed thermographic imaging is in very good agreement with the actual coating thickness value.

Santa Maria di Collemaggio Church (L’Aquila, Italy): Historical Reconstruction by Non-Destructive Testing Techniques

The main goal of this work was the non-destructive testing (NDT) of an ancient fresco (15th century) preserved in the Santa Maria di Collemaggio Church (L’Aquila, Italy) and damaged after the 2009 earthquake. Active infrared thermography (IRT), near-infrared (NIR) reflectography and ultraviolet imaging (UV) were used. In addition, the state of the fresco prior to the earthquake was analyzed by electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI), digital speckle correlation (DSC), raking light, tap, and chemical NDT techniques. The use of these techniques was important for the monitoring of new damages and for a comparison between the results over the years. Square heating thermography (SHT) data were processed using principal component thermography (PCT) and pulsed phase thermography (PPT) algorithms, in order to improve the defects’ signature and to reduce the impact of non-uniform heating and emissivity variations due to the painting’s pigments. A multi-analysis approach, segmentation operators and a specific data correlation method emphasize the overall study of the fresco. Furthermore, the facade and the high altar area were inspected by passive thermography and ground-penetrating radar (GPR), respectively. In the present case, the combined use of NDT techniques was useful to fill in the gaps in the construction history of the building.

Depth Detection of Bond Defects in Multilayered Externally Bonded CFRP-to-Concrete Using Pulse Phase Thermography

AbstractAlthough the practice of repairing or strengthening concrete infrastructure with externally bonded carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has become common, the development of robust guidelines and techniques for its quality assurance, inspection, and monitoring is lagging significantly. Whereas common inspection methods (e.g., visual inspection or acoustic sounding) are sufficient to broadly identify deboned regions, it is difficult to reliably and accurately define the boundaries of bond defects, as is often required by acceptance criteria. Infrared thermography is a more sophisticated alternative, but the results of its application are influenced by ambient environmental conditions and operator interpretation of the data. Further, for applications in which multiple layers of CFRP are required, none of these techniques are capable of fully characterizing existing bond defects, including the depth through the thickness. To this end, pulse phase thermography (PPT) has the potential to more reliabl...

Inductive pulsed phase thermography for reducing or enlarging the effect of surface emissivity variation

Emissivity variation introduces illusory temperature inhomogeneity and results in false alarms in infrared thermography, thus, it is important to separate the influence of surface emissivity variation. This letter experimentally demonstrates the advantages of phase information to reduce or enlarge the effect of surface emissivity variation with inductive pulsed phase thermography, where inductive excitation is emissivity-independent and avoids the effect of emissivity variation in heating process. The directly heated area and the indirectly heated area are divided in the phasegrams. The emissivity variation is removed or enlarged perfectly at the specific frequency and defect detectability is improved remarkably.

Inspection on CFRP sheet with subsurface defects using pulsed thermographic technique

The pulsed thermographic technique was used to detect flat-bottomed hole defects in CFRP sheet. Pulsed phase thermography (PPT) was used to extract the characteristic information of the thermal wave signal generated by thermal pulse. The difference of the phases between the sound and defective areas were analyzed. The defects’ edges were extracted by Fuzzy C-Means clustering algorithm.

Modelling and evaluation of pulsed and pulse phase thermography through application of composite and metallic case studies

A transient thermal finite element model has been created of the pulsed thermography (PT) and pulse phase thermography (PPT) experimental procedure. The model has been experimentally validated through the application of four case studies of varying geometries and materials. Materials used include aluminium, carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) and adhesively bonded joints. The same four case studies have also formed a basis for comparison between three experimental techniques: PT, PPT and the more established ultrasonic (UT) c-scan.Results show PPT to be advantageous over PT due to its deeper probing as it is less influenced by surface features. Whilst UT is able to reveal all the defects in these case studies, the time consuming nature of the process is a significant disadvantage compared to the full field thermography methods.Overall, the model has achieved good correlation for the case studies considered and it was found that the main limiting factor of the PT model accuracy was knowledge of thermal material properties such as conductivity and specific heat. Where these properties were accurately known the model performed very well in comparison with experimental results. PPT modelling performed less well due to the method of processing the PT data which aims to emphasise small differences. Hence inaccuracies in inputted values such as material properties have a much greater influence on the modelled PPT data. The model enables a better understanding of PT and PPT and provides a means of establishing the experimental set-up parameters required for different components, allowing the experimental technique to be appropriately tailored to more complex situations including bonded joints or structures where several materials are present.The paper ends with a section on defect detectability based on thermal diffusivity contrast between the defect and the bulk material. It shows that in aluminium, because of its higher conductivity, greater thermal contrast is achieved for small differences in diffusivity. Regions where the diffusivity ratio between defect and bulk materials was insufficient to provide thermal contrast for defect identification were found. PPT phase data is shown to reduce the extent of such regions increasing the detectability of defects. Effusivity is introduced as a means of determining the thermal contrast between the defect and non-defective areas and hence establishing the defect detectability.

Estimation of trial parameters for Pulse Phase Thermography with low power heat sources

Non-destructive Testing by Infrared Thermography (IR-NDT) is a widely adopted technique to reveal the presence of defects, i.e. discontinuity zones of thermal proprieties, inside materials. Pulsed Phase Thermography (PPT) is one of the most interesting techniques among IR-NDT: the specimen is heated by a thermal pulse and the sequence of thermograms of the surface cooling is transformed with the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The resulting phase images (phasegrams) show little sensitivity to irregular heating and surface proprieties, and allow better defect identification by increasing the contrast. It is also possible to estimate the depth of the defect by correlating a characteristic frequency to the thermal diffusion length of the defect. The outcome of this analysis depends on the fine tuning of the technique and the appropriate choice of the parameters of the thermal pulse, namely length and power, as well as of the acquisition: frequency and observation time. While there are in literature a few guidelines for the choice of these parameters, a good knowledge of the technique and a certain degree of guessing is still required, especially when low heating power, longer pulses and small and deep defects are involved. This paper reports a method to estimate these parameters, partly based on theoretic considerations and partly on numerical simulations performed by means of a FEM commercial code on a 2D axial-symmetric model. Experimental results are also here presented, focusing on the difference between a thick plate and a thin one.

Enhanced image processing for infrared non-destructive testing

AbstractThis paper presents a review and in-depth analysis of three of the most popular techniques for processing PT images: differential absolute contrast, thermographic signal reconstruction and pulsed phase thermography. The fundamental concepts of the three techniques are reviewed and their application on thermal data obtained from the PT inspection on a carbon fibre reinforced specimen is analysed. Furthermore, a new promissory technique based on multivariate statistical analysis is also introduced and evaluated. The performance of the techniques is evaluated in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio at maximum signal contrast.

Degradation monitoring of impact damaged carbon fibre reinforced polymers under fatigue loading with pulse phase thermography

Carbon fibre reinforced polymers were subjected to impact damage and fatigue load in tension–compression. During fatigue the development of the defects was monitored with pulse phase thermography using optical excitation. The development of phase angle difference measured between damaged areas and undamaged areas of the specimen shows a similar behaviour as degradation curves based on the variation of the material’s modulus. Additional investigations with ultrasonic c-scans, radiography and microscopy show correlations between the phase angle difference change and the accumulation, initiation and growth of delaminations, cracks and the geometrical dimensions of these defects.

Pulse phase thermography for characterising large historical building façades after solar heating and shadow cast – a case study

For assessing building façades using active thermography, in case of direct solar exposure the sun itself can be used as heat source. It is shown that active thermography can be applied to large areas successfully, if a shadow cast occurs. After performing a sequence reconstruction in order to correct the temporal behaviour of shadow movement, the data could be analysed by pulse phase thermography (PPT). Compared to raw thermograms, the obtained phase images display an improved image quality with a lot of details. The frequency of the phase images is related to the probing depth. The presented case study describes the thermographic investigation of an historical building façade, where an area of 17 m × 13 m has been investigated.