Pulse Height Resolution Research Articles

Performance evaluation of a single microchannel plate with large length-to-diameter ratio

The conventional microchannel plate (MCP) detector has found widespread application in various fields. This article focuses on investigating the performance of a single MCP with a large length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) of 80:1, particularly for single electron counting. To enhance MCP performance, alumina with a high secondary electron yield (SEY) is coated onto the MCP using atomic layer deposition (ALD). The SEYs of alumina thin films with different thicknesses are measured using a pulsing electron beam method. The 80:1 L/D MCPs operate in electron counting mode, and the optimal alumina thickness is determined through a comparative study of MCP performance before and after coating. The relationships between maximum SEY, primary electron energy, gain, peak-to-valley ratio (P/V), and pulse height resolution (PHR) are analyzed. After alumina coating, the single 80:1 MCP exhibits improved gain, P/V and PHR. The optimal P/V and PHR of a single MCP as functions of the primary electron energy align with the relationship between the SEY of the alumina coating and the primary electron energy. Additionally, the variation of DC gain with extracted charge is investigated. This article provides valuable insights for parameter selection in achieving the optimal working state of MCP and explores the potential application of single electron counting using a single MCP.

GEANT4-based calibration of an organic liquid scintillator

A light-yield calibration of an NE 213A organic liquid scintillator detector has been performed using both monoenergetic and polyenergetic gamma-ray sources. Scintillation light was detected in a photomultiplier tube, and the corresponding pulses were subjected to waveform digitization on an event-by-event basis. The resulting Compton edges have been analyzed using a GEANT4 simulation of the detector which models both the interactions of the ionizing radiation as well as the transport of scintillation photons. The simulation is calibrated and also compared to well-established prescriptions used to determine the Compton edges, resulting ultimately in light-yield calibration functions. In the process, the simulation-based method produced information on the gain and intrinsic pulse-height resolution of the detector. It also facilitated a previously inaccessible understanding of the systematic uncertainties associated with the calibration of the scintillation-light yield. The simulation-based method was also compared to well-established numerical prescriptions for locating the Compton edges. Ultimately, the simulation predicted as much as 17% lower light-yield calibrations than the prescriptions. These calibrations indicate that approximately 35% of the scintillation light associated with a given gamma-ray reaches the photocathode. It is remarkable how well two 50 year old prescriptions for calibrating scintillation-light yield in organic scintillators have stood the test of time.

Dual time-over-threshold: estimation of decay time and pulse height for scintillation detectors

To linearly estimate the decay time and pulse height of a scintillation detector with low power consumption, a dual time-over-threshold (dual-ToT) method is proposed in this paper. The results of comparative experiments conducted using a 3× 3× 3 mm3 LYSO crystal and 3× 3 mm2 MPPC with 50 μm cells indicated that the resolution of the estimated decay time using the dual-ToT method was 3.8 ns standard deviation (SD), whereas 3.5 ns SD was obtained using fully digitized waveforms. Additionally, a linear relationship between the dual-ToT-based and the analog-to-digital converter (ADC)-based pulse height was successfully observed. The estimated pulse height resolution using the dual-ToT method and post analysis technique was 12–13% FWHM at 511 keV, which is comparable to that of the ADC-based measurement. These capabilities potentially indicate that the dual-ToT method could be an alternative to the ADC method, with the advantage of lower power consumption and being applicable to the phoswich detector and particle identification applications.

Recent advances in bubble-assisted Liquid Hole-Multipliers in liquid xenon

We report on recent advances in the operation of bubble-assisted Liquid Hole-Multipliers (LHM). By confining a vapor bubble under or adjacent to a perforated electrode immersed in liquid xenon, we could record both radiation-induced ionization electrons and primary scintillation photons in the noble liquid. Four types of LHM electrodes were investigated: a THGEM, standard double-conical GEM, 50 μm-thick single-conical GEM (SC-GEM) and 125 μm-thick SC-GEM—all coated with CsI photocathodes. The 125 μm-thick SC-GEM provided the highest electroluminescence (EL) yields, up to ∼ 400 photons per electron over 4π , with an RMS pulse-height resolution reaching 5.5% for events comprising ∼ 7000 primary electrons. Applying a high transfer field across the bubble, the EL yield was further increased by a factor of ∼ 5. The feasibility of a vertical-mode LHM, with the bubble confined between two vertical electrodes, and the operation of a two-stage LHM configuration were demonstrated for the first time. We combine electrostatic simulations with observed signals to draw conclusions regarding the location of the liquid-gas interface and suggest an explanation for the observed differences in EL yield between the investigated electrodes.

An improved time over threshold method using bipolar signals

The time over threshold (TOT) method has been recently proposed as a signal processing method used to calculate time and energy information by measuring the pulse arrival time and pulse duration over a preset threshold. Although TOT has been reported as an effective method for front end readout in PET applications, it has several limitations, including its non-linearity, lower dynamic range, and a trade-off between energy resolution and coincidence resolving time (CRT). In this study, we propose a novel design we developed to improve performance with regard to these problems occurring in the conventional TOT by employing a bipolar signal and two comparators. Using a high frequency CR shaping filter, a detected signal was converted into a bipolar signal, and the positive pulse of the converted bipolar signal had a fast rising time, while the negative pulse had a linear slope. The bipolar TOT circuit was composed of a preamplifier, a CR shaping filter, and two comparators. The PET detector was composed of a single LYSO coupled with 4 × 4 SiPM arrays, a bipolar TOT circuit, and an FPGA based TDC. And this was constructed to evaluate the performance of the proposed bipolar TOT method. A 16-ch PET detector module consisting of a 4 × 4 array LYSO coupled to a 4 × 4 SiPM arrays, an Anger logic discretized positioning circuit, and a 4-ch bipolar TOT circuit was also constructed to evaluate the functionality of the bipolar TOT method for PET applications. The pulse height resolution and CRT were measured using both the bipolar TOT method and the conventional TOT method. While the bipolar TOT method provided a similar pulse height resolution (10.4% ± 0.1%), the integral non-linearity (1.4%) and CRT (168 ± 4 ps) measured using the bipolar TOT method were greatly improved compared to those (17.2% and 258 ± 15 ps, respectively) measured with the conventional TOT method. The positions of the crystals were clearly identified, as seen in the flood histogram acquired using the 4-ch bipolar TOT circuit. The measured average pulse height resolution and average CRT for the 16-ch detector module were 11.5% ± 0.2% and 516 ± 24 ps. The results obtained in this study indicate that the bipolar TOT method requiring a relatively small number of electronic components could effectively improve the CRT, linearity and dynamic range. Furthermore, they also demonstrated the extendibility allowing the development of a PET system that consists of a large number of detectors.

Two-dimensional solid state gaseous detector based on 10B layer for thermal and cold neutrons

Two-dimensional solid state gaseous detector for thermal and cold neutrons is created. The detector has active area of 128 x 128 mm2, 10B neutron converter, and gas chamber with thin windows. The resistive charge-division readout is applied to determine the neutron position. The detector was tested using W-Be photoneutron source at the Institute for Nuclear Research, Moscow. The detector efficiency is estimated as ∼4% at neutron wavelength λ = 1.82 Å and 8% at λ = 8 Å. The efficiency of the background detection was less than 10-5 of that for thermal neutrons. The resulting pulse height resolution and the spatial resolution are estimated as ∼15% and ∼2.5 mm, respectively.

Luminescent properties of composite scintillators based on PPO and o-POPOP doped SiO2 xerogel matrices

New composite scintillation detectors were obtained by incorporation of PPO and o-POPOP organic scintillators into porous sol–gel silica matrices. Composites possess high photoluminescence intensity and decay time in nanosecond range. The absolute light yield of composite scintillators at excitation by alpha-radiation is about 4000–5000 photons/MeV and the pulse–height resolution is about 30%. The investigations of time-resolved luminescence of composites performed under excitation by synchrotron radiation in the 3.7–25eV range have shown that the non-radiative energy transfer between host matrix and dopant molecules occurs via singlet states of SiO2 oxygen-deficient centers.

Single electron counting using a dual MCP assembly

The gain, pulse height resolution and peak-to-valley ratio of single electrons detected by using a Chevron configured Microchannel Plate (MCP) assembly are studied. The two MCPs are separated by a 280µm gap and are biased by four electrodes. The purpose of the study is to determine the optimum bias voltage arrangements for single electron counting. By comparing the results of various bias voltage combinations, we conclude that good performance for the electron counting can be achieved by operating the MCP assembly in saturation mode. In addition, by applying a small reverse bias voltage across the gap while adjusting the bias voltages of the MCPs, optimum performance of electron counting can be obtained.

Neutron light output function and resolution investigation of the deuterated organic liquid scintillator EJ-315

In this paper we investigate the light response to fast neutrons and estimate the pulse height resolution of a deuterated liquid organic scintillator, EJ-315, considering the detector's non-linear light response to gamma-rays. Initially, collision data and a neutron beam trigger are recorded in coincidence mode, and incident neutron energy is calculated with a time-of-flight technique. Fast neutrons are further discriminated from gamma-ray background based on the scintillation material decay patterns using a pulse shape discrimination algorithm. A light response matrix composed of multiple neutron energy and their corresponding light outputs is derived. The pulse height resolution property of the EJ-315 is characterized utilizing the derivatives of the pulse height distributions with corrections of the measurements setup uncertainties. Additionally, the EJ-315's pulse height resolution is also characterized by comparing the smoothed derivatives of quasi-monoenergetic neutron pulse height distributions, given by the Peierls-formula-based analytic model, to match the measurement data. Results show rather consistent 10–13% pulse resolution for mono-energetic neutrons with kinetic energy above 2 MeV. The resolution decreases slightly with an increase in neutron energy indicating the improved resolution performance of EJ-315 in the higher energy events.

Characterization of radiation damage caused by 23 MeV protons in Multi-Pixel Photon Counter (MPPC)

A automatic gain control system (AGC) is designed to continuously monitor and automatically control the gain of the phoswich detectors onboard the Hard X-ray Modulation Telescope (HXMT). It consists of a Am241 radioactive source and a photo-detector. The Am241 radioactive source is tagged within a plastic scintillator (BC440M). The scintillating photons produced by the decayed alpha particles from the radioactive source is readout by the photo-detector. The Multi-Pixel Photon Counter (MPPC) produced by Hamamatsu is used as the photo-detector for AGC. To verify the feasibility of its application in space environment, four MPPCs (S10362-33-050C) were irradiated by a beam of 23MeV protons. The integrated proton fluence that exposed to the four MPPC samples are 1.0×108pcm−2, 2.0×108pcm−2, 4.0×108pcm−2 and 1.0×1010pcm−2 respectively. It is found that the increment leakage current of the MPPC samples caused by irradiation damage increase linearly with the integrated fluence. The pulse-height resolution of the MPPC has deteriorated hardly after irradiation. When irradiated up to 1.1×109cm−2 1MeV equivalent neutrons, the MPPC completely lost its photon-counting capability but could still work as a photo-detector for AGC. The MPPC fails as a photo-detector for the AGC when the irradiated 1MeV neutron equivalent fluences is up to 2.7×1010cm−2.

Study of response of scintillation detector based on BaF2 crystals and nanoceramics

Fast and slow components of responses of scintillation detectors based on BaF2 crystals and nanoceramics with various activators are studied by the registration of annihilation gamma-quanta with an energy of 511 keV. A comparative analysis of the obtained results for the determination of promising scintillators for the development of detectors with high time and pulse height resolution is carried out.

Characterization of photo-multiplier tubes for the Cryogenic Avalanche Detector

New Cryogenic Avalanche Detector (CRAD) with ultimate sensitivity, that will be able to detect one primary electron released in the cryogenic liquid, is under development in the Laboratory of Cosmology and Particle Physics of the Novosibirsk State University jointly with the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics. The CRAD will use two sets of cryogenic PMTs in order to get trigger signal either from primary scintillations in liquid Ar or from secondary scintillations in high field gap above the liquid. Two types of cryogenic PMTs produced by Hamamatsu Photonics were tested and the results are presented in this paper. Low background 3 inch PMT R11065-10 demonstrated excellent performance according to its specifications provided by the producer. The gain measured with single electron response (SER) in liquid Ar reached 107, dark count rate rate did not exceed 300 Hz and pulse height resolution of single electron signals was close to 50%(FWHM). However, two R11065-10 PMTs out of 7 tested stopped functioning after several tens minutes of operation immersed completely into liquid Ar. The remaining 5 devices and one R11065-MOD were operated successfully for several hours each with all the parameters according to the producer specifications. Compact 2 inch PMT R6041-506-MOD with metal-channel dynode structure is a candidate for side wall PMT system that will look at electroluminescence in high field region above liquid. Four of these PMTs were tested in liquid Ar and demonstrated gain up to 2× 107, dark count rate rate below 100 Hz and pulse height resolution of single electron signals of about 110% (FWHM).

Cryogenic gaseous photomultipliers and liquid hole- multipliers: advances in THGEM-based sensors for future noble-liquid TPCs

Dual-phase noble-liquid TPCs are presently the most sensitive instruments for direct dark matter detection. Scaling up existing ton-scale designs to the multi-ton regime may prove to be technologically challenging. This includes both large-area coverage with affordable high-QE UV-photon detectors, and maintaining high precision in measuring the charge and light signals of rare events with keV-scale energy depositions. We present our recent advances in two complementary approaches to these problems: large-area cryogenic gaseous photomultipliers (GPM) for UV-photon detection, and liquid-hole multipliers (LHM) that provide electroluminescence light in response to ionization electrons and primary scintillation photons, using perforated electrodes immersed within the noble liquid. Results from a 10 cm diameter GPM coupled to a dual-phase liquid- xenon TPC demonstrate the feasibility of recording - for the first time - both primary (“S1”) and secondary (“S2”) scintillation signals, over a very broad dynamic range. The detector, comprising a triple-THGEM structure with CsI on the first element, has been operating stably at 180 K with gains larger than 105; it provided high single-photon detection efficiency - in the presence of massive alpha-particle induced S2 signals; S1 scintillation signals were recorded with time resolutions of 1.2 ns (RMS). Results with the LHM operated in liquid xenon yielded large photon gains, with a pulse-height resolution of 11% (RMS) for alpha-particle induced S2 signals. The detector response was stable over several months. The response of the S2 signals to rapid changes in pressure lead to the conclusion that the underlying mechanism for S2 light is electroluminescence in xenon bubbles trapped below the immersed THGEM electrode. Both studies have the potential of paving the way towards new designs of dual- and single-phase noble-liquid TPCs that could simplify the conception of future multi-ton detectors of dark matter and other rare events.

First use of single-crystal diamonds as fission-fragment detector

Single-crystal chemical vapor-deposited diamond (sCVD) was investigated for its ability to act as fission-fragment detector. In particular we investigated timing and energy resolution for application in a simultaneous time-of-flight and energy measurement to determine the mass of the detected fission fragment. Previous tests have shown that poly-crystalline chemical vapor deposited (pCVD) diamonds provide sufficient timing resolution, but their poor energy resolution did not allow complete separation between very low-energy fission fragments, α-particles and noise. Our present investigations prove artificial sCVD diamonds to show similar timing resolution as pCVD diamonds close to 100ps. Improved pulse-height resolution allows the unequivocal separation of fission fragments, and the detection efficiency reaches 100%, but remains with about a few percent behind requirements for fragment-mass identification. With high-speed digital electronics a timing resolution well below 100ps is possible. However, the strongly varying quality of the presently available diamond material does not allow application on a sufficiently large scale within reasonable investments.

Pulse-Shape Discrimination of Alpha Particles of Different Specific Energy-Loss With Parallel-Plate Avalanche Counters

Parallel-plate avalanche counters have long been recognized as timing detectors for heavily ionizing particles. However, these detectors suffer from a poor pulse-height resolution which limits their capability to discriminate between different ionizing particles. In this paper, a new approach for discriminating between charged particles of different specific energy-loss with avalanche counters is demonstrated. We show that the effect of the self-induced space-charge in parallel-plate avalanche counters leads to a strong correlation between the shape of output current pulses and the amount of primary ionization created by the incident charged particles. The correlation is then exploited for the discrimination of charged particles with different energy-losses in the detector. The experimental results obtained with α-particles from an <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">241</sup> Am α-source demonstrate a discrimination capability far beyond that achievable with the standard pulse-height discrimination method.

A compact stilbene crystal neutron spectrometer for EAST D-D plasma neutron diagnostics

A new compact stilbene crystal neutron spectrometer has been investigated and applied in the neutron emission spectroscopy on the EAST tokamak. A new components analysis method is presented to study the anisotropic light output in the stilbene crystal detector. A Geant4 code was developed to simulate the neutron responses in the spectrometer. Based on both the optimal light output function and the fitted pulse height resolution function, a reliable neutron response matrix was obtained by Geant4 simulations and validated by 2.5 MeV and 14 MeV neutron measurements at a 4.5 MV Van de Graaff accelerator. The spectrometer was used to diagnose the ion temperature in plasma discharges with lower hybrid wave injection and ion cyclotron resonance heating on the EAST tokamak.

Energy resolution of small scintillation detectors with SiPM light readout

The development of silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) with a large number of APD cells and improved linearity of the pulse height response prompted interest in their application to gamma spectrometry with scintillators. Hamamatsu MPPC sensors equipped with 3600 and 14400 APD cells were chosen in our study because of their well pronounced single photoelectron spectra, which allowed us to precisely measure the photoelectron numbers (PHE) or fired APD cells and then to discuss, in a quantitative manner, the obtainable energy resolution. The studied detectors were first characterized in direct detection of laser light pulses and then in gamma spectroscopy with LFS and CsI:Tl crystals. In the study with the laser light pulses the linearity of the MPPC response versus a light pulse intensity monitored with PMT was measured. Two different methods were used for an evaluation of the MPPC response expressed in the number of photoelectrons (PHE) generated by light illumination. The direct method (PHEdir), based on the comparison of the light peak position to that of the single photoelectron peak, determined the upper limit of the PHE. The lower limit of the PHE was derived from an analysis of the measured pulse height resolution under the assumption of Poisson statistics and MPPC excess noise factor (ENF) of 1. Furthermore, the ENF of the MPPC is discussed with respect to the contributions of device dead time, optical cross-talk and after-pulses to the results obtained. In the scintillation tests, measurements of energy resolution and non-proportionality of the light yield were performed with LFS and CsI:Tl crystals, and both types of 3 × 3 mm MPPC detectors were used for light readout. The results are discussed in a quantitative manner based on the measured PHE.

A study on the pulse height resolution of organic scintillator digitized pulses

Organic scintillator detectors are widely used for neutron spectroscopy in fusion devices due to their good energy resolution and capability of neutron/gamma discrimination. Nowadays, scintillator pulses are commonly recorded by means of digital acquisition systems. These have several advantages, and in particular the possibility of off-line data reprocessing: however, the signal digitization can be a cause of degradation of the pulse height (PH) resolution (and therefore of the energy resolution obtained after pulse height spectra unfolding). In this work, the problem of how pulse digitization may influence the pulse height resolution is investigated. First, through downsampling of digitized scintillator pulses, we determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid any degradation of the pulse height resolution. Secondly, we find that the application of interpolation methods to the digitized pulses does not affect the pulse height resolution, whereas it increases the figure of merit for neutron/gamma discrimination. These results are relevant to define the specifications for the digital acquisition systems of neutron detectors in present and future fusion devices such as JET and ITER.

GdBr3:Ce in glass matrix as nuclear spectroscopy detector

An alumina-silica glass cylinder with cerium-activated gadolinium bromide, 2.5 cm in diameter and 3 cm long was cast to form a scintillation detector for spectral analysis of nuclear radiation, especially gamma rays. The detector, operated with a conventional photomultiplier tube and associated power supply, amplifier, and multichannel analyzer, shows for the first time for this material system a set of spectra that include well-defined full-energy gamma-ray peaks from 59.5 keV to 2500 keV. The full-energy peaks were characterized in terms of pulse height linearity, resolution, and counting efficiency. Energy spectral resolution also was demonstrated for alpha particles, beta particles, and 239Pu/Be neutrons. Gamma-ray detection efficiency was comparable to a conventional NaI(Tl) detector of similar volume but peak resolution at 662 keV in this new detector type was currently only 27%, compared to about 7% for the NaI(Tl) detector. Improved light output and thus resolution is being sought by optimizing glass compositions and processing.

Efficiency of Solid State Photomultipliers in Photon Number Resolution

Solid State Photomultipliers (SSPM) are widely recognized as a new generation of photodetectors competitive with APD and PMT in various applications. SSPM advantages are high gain, ultra-low excess noise factor of internal amplification, good photon detection efficiency, and fast timing. SSPM drawbacks are high dark count rate, considerable probability of cross-talk and afterpulsing, and low dynamic range. Detection of scintillation light pulses in nuclear science and medical imaging is one of the most attractive and thoroughly studied SSPM applications. The key parameter of the detection is energy resolution, which is used in respect to the photodetector itself by output pulse height resolution. Resolution of SSPM is considerably affected by non-linearity of the photoresponse due to the limited number of pixels and finite reset time of the pixel. Thus, output signal resolution calibrated in photon scale or Photon Number Resolution (PNR) should be used to reflect the non-linearity. The purpose of this study is to express PNR of SSPM in an analytical form taking into account excess noise factor of cross-talk and afterpulsing, and non-linearity. The normalization of PNR relative to an ideal detector characterizes the efficiency of SSPM in terms of the total excess noise factor of photodetection or, inversely, in terms of the detective quantum efficiency. The presented PNR model is suitable for performance optimization as well as for evaluation of SSPM applicability and competitiveness.