Public Green Spaces Research Articles

Changes in the relationship between Index of Concentration at the Extremes and U.S. urban greenspace: a longitudinal analysis from 2001–2019

Urban greenspace is associated with a wide variety of human health benefits, from improved mental health to reduced violent crime and infant birth outcomes. This study investigates long-term trends in the distribution of greenspace across census tracts in the 260 U.S. cities with populations greater than 100,000 residents based on economic privilege and deprivation. Satellite-acquired Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) images were used as a measure of greenspace, and the Index of Concentration at the Extremes (ICE) was used as a measure spatial social polarizations of deprived and priveliged populations. From 2001 to 2019, the most privileged, highest ICE quintile census tracts had both the highest mean NDVI and experienced a significantly greater increase in greenspace than the least privileged tracts, indicating that the disparity in greenspace access is widening. Public greenspace initiatives need to focus on programs that are more equitable across the spectrum of economic strata to reduce urban health disparities and address concerns of environmental justice.

Are public green spaces distributed fairly? A nationwide analysis based on remote sensing, OpenStreetMap and census data

Green space (GS) is a crucial resource in urban areas, but not spatially uniformly distributed. We compare the availability of GS on a national scale using green land cover (GLC) and public green space (PGS). Using spatial census data we analyse GS availability and accessibility for the German population. The average GS availability differs by a factor of three between GLC and PGS. 19.2 % of Germans find less than the WHO defined target for PGS in their neighbourhood. PGS is less equally distributed among the population than GLC, and green space equity varies significantly between rural and urban areas. In areas with multi-family homes, a higher share of the population has access to sufficient PGS than in areas with predominantly single-family homes. We find a negative relation between GLC availability and share of immigrant population, which does not extend to PGS.

Seasonal variation in urban pollen resource use by north temperate European honeybees

AbstractUrban green infrastructure can provide important habitats for pollinators and support urban ecosystem services. Therefore, these areas must be managed to maximize biodiversity and density of pollinating insects. We used DNA metabarcoding to study honeybee pollen resource use over time and space in the city of Oslo, Norway, and to assess the role of green infrastructure as a resource for pollinators and the services they generate. Urban honeybees used diverse pollen resources throughout their active season. There was considerable seasonal turnover in pollen resource use that reflected flowering phenology. Non-native plants (including invasive species) were an important resource early in the season but were replaced by native plants later in the season. Hive location was not strongly correlated with resource use, likely indicating effective long-distance foraging in the fragmented urban landscape. However, flower visitation rates and floral resource density in public urban green spaces were coupled to pollen use. Honeybees collected pollen from a small number of preferred species but also visited other species, likely for nectar. To preserve pollinator services, urban planning should consider flower resource management, with particular focus on planting native species that can act as early season resources for bees. Public campaigns and other incentive mechanisms to promote the cultivation of native plants that are resources for pollinators and the protection of urban semi-natural habitats have the potential to enhance the value of green infrastructure to support urban pollinators and pollination services.

A sustainable solution for flood and rain hazard using remote sensing & GIS: New Cairo

Climate changes have exposed many countries to the risks of heavy rains and floods that may lead to the loss of lives and damage to properties. The trend in prioritizing the establishment of stormwater drainage systems in urban areas in Egypt came after the provision and completion of drinking water. This necessitated the implementation of permanent solutions to absorb the unprecedented amounts of rainwater and torrential rain, which were not taken into account when designing the existing sewage networks. Furthermore, there is a lack of water resources and the existing water resources are less than the demand. Therefore, this research study aimed to take advantage of the stormwater that falls on residential neighborhoods by making underground reservoirs or retention ponds to protect these areas from the damage caused by the rains and reusing it in irrigating local green area inside these regions, to achieve sustainable water resources solutions for these areas. Satellite imagery, DEM & ArcGIS are used. A hydrological calculation for 24 different storms, with 4 different return periods for New Cairo City. However, it is the basin of interest that includes public green spaces for rain harvesting and storage for irrigation. For avoiding the risks of heavy rains in a city that hasn’t stormwater networks, and get a sustainable solution by using the water from rainfall for irrigation through using sub-areas of some public green spaces such as retention ponds or ground reservoirs, using the runoff volume shall save approximately 6 days of irrigation per storm.

Green Courtyard Residential Areas: Exploring the Spatial Pattern of London Suburban Residential Areas Integrating Public Green Spaces and Living Spaces

The highly restrictive Green Belt policy in London, United Kingdom has created a dichotomy between living environments and natural surroundings, posing challenges to urban development. In an attempt to alleviate this situation, this study focuses on the New Barnet residential area, located adjacent to the Green Belt, and summarizes the issues faced by the residential area based on field investigations. Subsequently, the integration of urban living spaces and natural spaces is emphasized from three spatial scales, proposing and elucidating the spatial pattern of Green Courtyard Residential Areas. Lastly, based on three issues related to the sites original condition, the outcomes of the renewal are presented. Quantitative comparative analysis is conducted on the data before and after the renewal of green spaces and residential buildings, followed by a feasibility analysis of the renewal scheme. The proposal of Green Courtyard Residential Areas provides a potential solution to reconcile the juxtaposition of living spaces and green spaces in London.

Biophilic design: an effective design approach during pandemic and post-pandemic

PurposeThe emergence of Covid-19 and its epidemic features have affected many people around the world. Regardless of the physical and psychological problems caused by it, people must isolate themselves from their surroundings. This problem is more intense in urban areas where people live in crowded apartments and high-rise buildings. During the lockdown, residents of such buildings suffered from disconnection from nature, in addition to the lack of communication with others. As most multi-story apartments and residential complexes do not have separate green spaces and do not provide a safe connection to nature for occupants, it is very tough for the residents of these buildings to endure the disease, and occupants are more vulnerable to disease. Accordingly, this study proposes the biophilic design as an effective approach to provide a secure connection with nature in residential complexes and high-rise apartments.Design/methodology/approachThe questionnaire method was used in this study to analyze the raised hypotheses. Two types of residential zones were selected for the survey and comparing the results. One is apartment units without dedicated green space, and the other is villa houses with private green space. Size of the sample population include 300 people (150 residents of an apartment block and 150 residents of villa homes).FindingsStrict restrictions during the pandemic have prevented people from connecting with nature, especially in urban areas, owing to the lack of separated and dedicated green spaces, whereas connection with nature can be healing and lead to relieving anxiety and stress in this era based on the approved research. Accordingly, applying a biophilic approach to the design process would be helpful.Research limitations/implicationsThe lack of a biophilic project to observe was one of the limitations of this study. Being an available biophilic project in the surroundings could be very helpful to observe and acquire comprehensive knowledge and experiences from the handlers and users of biophilic buildings.Practical implicationsThis study can be beneficial for patients, individuals and occupants of apartments and residential complexes in urban areas who suffer from distance from nature and green spaces during the restrictions of pandemics such as Covid-19.Originality/valueThis study proposes the use of biophilic architecture in the design process of residential complexes and high-rise apartments to provide isolated and dedicated green spaces for occupants, especially during the lockdown when people have been deprived of parks and public green spaces.

Children and youth’s movement behaviours differed across phases and by geographic region throughout the COVID-19 pandemic in Nova Scotia, Canada: an explanatory sequential mixed-methods study

BackgroundLike many places globally, the health and well-being of children and youth living in Canada were significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Restricted access to the outdoors, schools, and public green spaces impacted children’s physical activity (PA), sedentary behaviour, and sleep. Restrictions changed throughout the pandemic, and children’s and youth’s movement behaviours may have been differentially affected based on time and place. This paper aimed to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the movement behaviours of children and youth living in Nova Scotia (NS), Canada, over time and by geographic region using mixed methods.MethodsThis study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. Secondary data from three repeated cross-sectional surveys of parent-reported demographic, movement, and geographic data of 291 children and youth aged 5–17 years were analyzed. Spatial cluster analyses were applied to identify geographic concentrations of children and youth who were more or less likely to meet the moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) guideline during the pandemic. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 Nova Scotian parents to understand their perspectives on their child’s movement behaviours during the pandemic. Interviews were analyzed deductively based on quantitative results using reflexive thematic analysis.ResultsOur findings showed only 5.5% of children and youth were meeting all guidelines throughout the pandemic. Of the movement behaviours, screen time (ST) differed across the pandemic and by age and gender. Clusters of children and youth meeting the MVPA recommendation on fewer days were found in regions within NS’s three largest population centres (Truro, Sydney, and the Halifax Regional Municipality (HRM)), and clusters of those meeting the MVPA recommendation on more days were also identified in the HRM. From semi-structured interviews, themes indicated: (1) escaping screens during early parts of the COVID-19 pandemic and when weather was colder was hard; (2) having access to spaces to be active near the home helped facilitate children’s movement; and (3) higher socioeconomic status enabled more opportunities for movement.ConclusionOverall, fewer public health restrictions led to more favourable movement behaviours and spatial and sociodemographic factors may have been at play. Decision-makers should consider these factors when identifying strategies to keep children active during future health crises.

Analisis Pengaruh Soundscape terhadap Kenyamanan Pengunjung di Taman Kota Sewaka Dharma, Denpasar, Bali

Analysis of the Effect of Soundscape on Visitor’s Comfort in Sewaka Dharma City Park, Denpasar, Bali. Sound is non-physical element that get less attention in creating sense of place. Very difficult to find good soundscape quality in urban landscape because of the negative impacts of noise. The existence of Sewaka Dharma City Park as public green open space should be a solution of these problems. This study aims to identify sound, analyze effect of soundscape on visitor’s comfort, and provide recommendation to improve the soundscape quality. The study method used is survey, with data collection technics used were observation, questionnaires, and literature study. The data analyzed by quantitative and descriptive analysis. Soundscape of this city park created by combination of natural sounds, human sounds, sounds and society, mechanical sound, and sound as indicator. The most dominant sound heard is the sound of vehicles. Measurement of SPL (Sound Preassure Level) reached 67.5 dB and it exceed the regulation for green open space. Sound assessment indicated natural sounds and sounds from worship place were considered as quite comfortable. Most of human sound and society are considered as not disturbing. Sounds that quite disturbing are people screaming, vehicles and horns. Noise control recommended in zone I and J, because it result the highest SPL and considered disturbing visitor’s activities, by adding barriers and filters with plants, pavement and water.

Distribution of Active Urban Parks in Semarang City by Utilizing GIS

Active Urban Parks are part of public green open spaces that play a role for a city, especially for the citizens. Because this active urban park can be a place for people to socialize. This study aims to identify the distribution of active urban parks located in the city of Semarang, which is depicted on the map of urban park distribution. The approach used is qualitative inductive strategy. The method used is a spatial descriptive method using GIS. Based on the results of the analysis, in general the distribution of active urban parks in Semarang City was not evenly distributed. This can be seen from 16 Subdistrict in the City of Semarang, almost all subdistricts have, the distribution of active urban parks that have not yet reached the entire area in each of these subdistricts. From the 16 subdistricts, there are only 3 subdistrict that have a fairly even distribution of active urban parks, i.a. Semarang Timur subdistrict, Semarang Utara subdistrict and Banyumanik subdistrict. These findings will be able to provide information related to the location of active urban parks in Semarang City and their distribution, which is presented in the form of a distribution map so that it becomes more interesting and communicative.

Evaluation Index System of Green Public Open Space Based on Internet of Things and Mental Health

ABSTRACT With the emergence of the IoT era, wireless sensor networks will be more and more widely used. In addition to collecting, transmitting and processing simple data such as humidity, temperature and density of the dome, they can also provide multimedia information services such as video and images. It enables more comprehensive and accurate environmental monitoring. Therefore, MSDs have a huge demand in military, daily, forestry, biomedicine and other fields. The intensive city model has obvious advantages in meeting people's diverse needs and comfortable life. Most obviously, it speeds up the rhythm of life for residents, thereby increasing efficiency and saving time. Starting from this aspect, this paper conducts a research on the evaluation index system of public built on the following areas of open space IoT and mental health. In this paper, the GRNN neural network model is constructed, the mean condition is calculated, the density function can be estimated, the network output, and the schematic diagram of the generalized regression neural network is improved. Using the established system, the index in 2018 is selected as the base year, and after transformation, the standardized values of the past years are formed, which are substituted into the cells to form different matrices. The value of each cell is counted to obtain the subsystem coordination degree, and the global coordination degree is obtained through calculation. The evaluation results of ecological civilization construction and development in 2018 and 2019, 2020 and 2021 were compared. The experimental data shows that compared with 2018, economic development will change from 1 to 2.000, social harmony will change from 1 to 2.480, ecological health will decrease to 0.850, environmental friendliness will decrease to 0.750, and comprehensive evaluation will decrease to 0.513. This shows that while the economy is developing this year, the construction of ecological civilization has been gradually carried out, and good results have been achieved. This reflects the effectiveness of the system. The subject of the evaluation index system of green public open space based on the Internet of Things and mental health has been well completed.

Presentation of Green Open Space of Makassar City inN WebGIS

Green open space has three basic functions, among others, to function socially, namely as a facility for the public with the functions of recreation, education and sports, as well as establishing communication between city residents; to function physically, namely as the lungs of the city, protecting the water system, soundproofing, fulfilling visual needs, restraining the development of built-up land/as a buffer, and protecting city residents from air pollution; and functions as an aesthetic that is a binder between building elements in the city, a giver of characteristics in shaping the face of the city, and an element in the arrangement of urban architecture. Law No. 26 of 2007 concerning Spatial Planning, it is explained that the spatial planning of the city area must include a plan for the provision and utilization of green open space which covers at least 30% of the city area consisting of 20% public green open space and 10% consisting of private green open space. . But in reality, there are still many big cities that are not difficult to achieve the provisions of the law. This research will identify green open space in Makassar City by utilizing satellite image data and then presenting the green open space in the form of spatial information into a Web GIS so that it can be easily accessed openly. Based on the results of the analysis, the percentage of open green space in Makassar reached 9.08%, consisting of private green open space of 4.07% and public green open space of 5.01%.

Public Acceptance of Treated Wastewater Reuse in the Agricultural Sector in Saudi Arabia

This paper examines public acceptance of reusing tertiary treated wastewater for agricultural purposes in Saudi Arabia. Data were collected through an online self-administered questionnaire from adults in the Al-Ahsa Governorate. A total of 344 eligible participants completed the survey. The results show that 77% of the participants supported the reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture. Most participants supported reusing treated wastewater because they trusted the authorities responsible for wastewater treatment and because it will augment water resources in Al-Ahsa. Participants who did not support reusing treated wastewater attributed their lack of support to health risks associated with reusing treated wastewater and for psychological reasons. Additional analysis for eight different agricultural applications showed that most participants supported the reuse of treated wastewater in applications with no direct connection to them (e.g., irrigation of public parks, green spaces, and woody trees and irrigation of animal feed crops). However, less than half of the participants supported the reuse of treated wastewater for other applications, especially for the irrigation of leafy green, raw, and cooked vegetables. Therefore, raising public awareness about the safety of reusing tertiary treated wastewater in agriculture should be a priority for authorities responsible for water management in Saudi Arabia.

Home Greenery: Alleviating Anxiety during Lockdowns with Varied Landscape Preferences

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries applied lockdown rules to flatten their epidemic curves. Meanwhile, many people suffered mental health crises. However, evidence is lacking on the psychologically restorative effects of home greenery for citizens with varying landscape preferences when public green spaces are unavailable. In Xi’an, China, during the December 2021 lockdown period, a questionnaire on residents’ anxiety, houseplants and green view from windows, and landscape preferences was designed by the authors and sampled by snowballing. Houseplants and green view from windows were positively associated with anxiety remission (p < 0.05), and the effects were different among landscape preferences. The houseplants helped to alleviate moderate and severe anxiety among respondents who preferred open green spaces and partly open green spaces. Visual exposure to Urban Green Spaces through windows alleviated mild anxiety in respondents who preferred open green spaces. It also alleviated mild, moderate, and severe anxiety in respondents who preferred partly open green spaces. More visual exposure to Urban Green Spaces via windows alleviated mild, moderate, and severe anxiety in respondents who preferred partly open blue spaces. When cities are at risk of pandemics, or in places where incapacitated people are living, distributing indoor plants to households presents a quick approach to helping mitigate anxiety and increasing green cover in residential areas will improve sustainability.

Inclusive green environment for all? An investigation of spatial access equity of urban green space and associated socioeconomic drivers in China

The inequitable distribution of urban green spaces (UGS) has attracted increasing attention given the important role of green environments for sustainable development. However, many recent studies have yielded different results between cities in different geographic regions and development stages and even within the same city. Hence, this study addresses two research gaps in the green justice literature: (1) What are the spatial equity levels of different types of UGS, and what are their differences as well as spatial distribution characteristics? (2) What differences exist in the spatial equity levels of UGS in cities at various socioeconomic stages? On the basis of these gaps, we explain why contradictory findings have been found in the existing literature. This study focuses on three types of UGS in China, namely, community green spaces, street greenery, and public parks, and explores the driving effects of socioeconomic factors on the spatial equity of UGS in 263 Chinese cities. The results show that GDP and the population growth rate increase the spatial equity of community green spaces and street greenery. By contrast, economic development and increased in-migration can worsen the equity level of public green space accessibility. Our study provides evidence and insights for Chinese central and local governments to implement highly effective and sustainable greening programs to promote inclusive urban greening in Chinese cities.

The impact of remote work on green space values in regional housing markets

We examine the extent to which the increased prevalence of work from home (WFH) due to the COVID-19 pandemic has made green amenities more desirable.22Data provided by Zillow through the Zillow Transaction and Assessment Dataset (ZTRAX). More information on accessing the data can be found at http://www.zillow.com/ztrax. The results and opinions are those of the authors and do not reflect the position of the Zillow Group. Specifically, we focus on ten metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) in the United States (Baltimore, Chicago, Cleveland, Los Angeles, Minneapolis/St. Paul, New York City, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, and Tampa) and use a hedonic pricing approach to identify changes in the implicit prices of yard space and park proximity. We use a combination of data sources, including the Zillow Transaction and Assessment Database (ZTRAX), Open Street Maps, Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics Origin–Destination Employment Statistics (LODES), National Land Cover Database (NLCD), and the Environmental Protection Agency’s EnviroAtlas to study the interactions between the exposure of a given neighborhood to WFH shock and private yard space, as well as proximity to the nearest park. Our findings suggest that home buyers in all the MSAs, except Minneapolis and Pittsburgh, assigned a greater value to private green amenities during the post-COVID period. However, for the MSAs of Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh, the marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for private green spaces decreased in the post-COVID period in the areas with large WFH shocks. No significant change in the MWTP for proximity to public green spaces is noted in the post-COVID period for most MSAs. An event study of yard space reveals that most MSAs experienced an increase in the hedonic price of yard space in the post-COVID period. In the pre-COVID period, for many MSAs, the hedonic price of yard space was decreasing over the years, and this trend reversed in the post-COVID period. These results suggest that the preferred amenity bundles of people living in major cities in the U.S. have shifted as a result of changes in their commutes and work habits.

The Impact of Public Green Space Views on Indoor Thermal Perception and Environment Control Behavior of Residents - A Survey Study in Shanghai

To reduce energy consumption while meeting the indoor thermal comfort requirements of residential buildings, this survey study explores the visual-thermal cross-modal effect of public green space window view on residents’ indoor thermal perception, and how this effect regulates residents’ environment control behavior. Based on an online questionnaire, 424 valid data were collected from Shanghai residents during the lockdown period during which the window view is the only accessible connection to the outside. The result shows that public green space views, while not significantly changing the physical thermal sensation of residents, made a greater proportion of participants feel thermal neutral, and significantly improved the participants' environmental evaluation, thermal comfort, and thermal acceptance, resulting in a 7% decrease in using air conditioning and 7% increase in natural ventilation. Path analysis reveals that public green space window view can improve indoor thermal comfort by enhancing subjective environmental evaluation, and thus encourage passive environmental regulation behavior, reducing energy consumption. Complementing previous studies, this research provides direct evidence for the energy-saving potential of public green space in residential areas from a different angle.
 Keywords: Visual-thermal interaction; cross-modal perception; Environment control behavior; Environmental psychology;
 Sustainable design

Design for the Third Place Based on Satisfaction of Public’s Demand- A Case Study of Taipei Main Station District

This study aims to investigate the demand for third spaces in micro-cities and explore people's perception, desire to stay, and willingness to revisit these spaces through questionnaire surveys and SEM structural model analysis. In micro-cities, integrating the "micro-mobility" mode such as walking or cycling for short-distance travel, we can create small squares, public green spaces, and pocket parks around micro-spaces to enrich the street space and enhance community belonging and identity. These micro-spaces not only serve as development areas for the functions of third spaces in micro-cities but also act as permeable boundaries within the city, achieving balanced planning and utilization. The research findings indicate that people have relatively weak awareness of third spaces but are generally satisfied with the existing planned spaces and believe that third spaces can enrich the urban environment. Dynamic urban spaces have a strong appeal to people, and the experiences and services provided by these spaces can attract people to visit. Therefore, designing spaces that stimulate interaction and communication is crucial. Additionally, the aesthetic quality of the spaces also has a certain influence on people's willingness to revisit them

The relative effects of access to public greenspace and private gardens on mental health

Although the beneficial effects of urban greenspace on mental health are widely accepted, the comparative effects of public greenspace and private (domestic) gardens on mental health are poorly understood. Here, an assessment is provided of the effect of local public greenspace on a person’s mental health for those with and without a private garden in Britain. Individual level data on private garden ownership and mental health status are obtained from a nationally representative survey (the British Household Panel Survey). A combination of statistical matching and regression models are used to account for individual and area-level confounders and to test for interactions. Individuals with (n = 4,454) and without (n = 338) private gardens are analysed separately and their predicted probability of poor mental health in response to public greenspace presence is compared. Results show that the predicted positive effect of having a private garden varies depending on gender and age. Specifically, having a private garden substantially reduces the maximum predicted probability of poor mental health for men regardless of their access to local public greenspace. Whereas, for women, the presence of local public greenspace results in comparable mental health for those with and without a garden. Women without access to local public greenspace, having a private garden reduces the predicted probability of poor mental health later in life. Given the results, it is recommended that the provision of private gardens is considered within greenspace guidance and policy, which is currently dominated by the provision of, or access to, public greenspaces.

THE ROLE OF GREEN PUBLIC SPACES IN THE FORMATION OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

The article analyzes the role of open green public spaces in the formation of a sustainable urban environment. In the urban planning dimension, public spaces are pedestrian streets, squares, boulevards, embankments, parks and squares, which were formed under the influence of historical, cultural, social and economic factors. In the social dimension, the listed objects are a territory publicly available for use by all residents to meet the needs of recreation, communication, sports, etc.
 The article also considers the typology of open landscaped spaces. The problem of the formation of public spaces for the cities of Ukraine is particularly relevant in view of the changes of the last decades in the field of economy, sociology, urban planning concepts of sustainable development, which stimulated the transformation of cities. Consideration of public space as a structural element of the city is important in the issue of sustainable development of Ukrainian cities and requires appropriate methodological support for analysis, evaluation, modeling and management of scientific and project activities. Resolving the contradiction between the knowledge of regularities and basic theories of the interaction of sciences in the development of the city and the real state of affairs will ensure the validity of the theoretical provisions in further studies of the spatial development of the city and practical urban planning solutions.

Contrasting relationships between socio-economic status and avian ecosystem service provision in a developing world city

Urban biodiversity, and the ecosystem services it provides, are not equitably distributed across socio-economic gradients. Previous studies have highlighted disparities in alpha-diversity along socio-economic gradients, but few have translated those findings into differences in ecological function, and critically, ecosystem service delivery by urban wildlife along the same gradient. This study tested whether turnover in bird functional diversity, and associated avian ecosystem services, varied along the socio-economic gradient of a large developing world city. We surveyed bird diversity in 27 public access urban green spaces across the urban and socio-economic gradients in the city of Johannesburg, South Africa. Bird functional traits, representing cultural, regulation and supporting ecosystem services were assigned to species recorded during the surveys. A fourth-corner analysis revealed that socio-economic and urban landscape compositional variables surrounding the green spaces acted as filters of bird species’ functional traits, suggesting differences in ecosystem service provision along development gradients. Urban green spaces in low-income landscapes supported more birds of ‘public interest’ (a cultural ecosystem service), but in contrast had fewer nectivores (a supporting ecosystem service - pollination). Tree cover had a positive relationship with frugivorous bird abundance, and green space size had a negative relationship with granivorous bird abundance (both supporting ecosystem services – seed dispersal). The contrasting relationships, particularly between socio-economic status and ecosystem service provision, suggest that it is important to interrogate how socio-economic variables affect access to urban biodiversity beyond commonly used metrics of alpha-diversity. This allows for nuanced perspectives of environmental injustice in cities and relevant interventions that can aid in circumventing it.