Public Fountains Research Articles

Darcy H (translated by Bobeck P): The public fountains of the city of Dijon

Darcy H (translated by Bobeck P): The public fountains of the city of Dijon

The properties of Seljuq and Ottoman era public fountain faucets and some rare faucet samples

Until the late 19th and early 20th century, public fountains (in Turkish, ‘çeşme’) in Anatolia and Ottoman lands had an important place in everyday life. The water that was collected from various water sources and brought to the city centres through waterlines was supplied to people from the architectural stone structures which we call ‘fountains’. These fountains were constructed in squares and streets as needed; to supply water to an area or to pay for the building of a fountain was considered the greatest deed. An inseparable part of the public fountains, many of which are architectural monuments, is the faucets which are generally made of metal and through which the water would run. The faucets were also named as ‘lüles’ (meaning ‘pipes’) which indicated the flow rate of water. Faucets were paid great attention in the construction of public fountains. This work examines the Seljuq and Ottoman era faucets registered in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum as historic artefacts and are a part of the Adell Armature Collection. Within this scope, the alloys and metals of which faucets are made; their size and measurements, their design features, on and off mechanisms, wall-mount features, the patterns and decorations on the faucets were also compared. While Seljuq era faucets have stylised dragon heads and other powerful animals depicted in their metal work, Ottoman era faucets usually have floral patterns and not animal figures. This subject draws much attention.

Assessment of microbial growth potential of PVC flexible tubing in contact with drinking water

Plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVCp) tubes are commonly used to transport drinking water to public coffee vending machines, ice machines or water fountains. In contrast to pipe materials, the materials used beyond the consumer's tap are considered to be in contact with food and need to comply with the European Regulation for food contact materials; this, however, does not contain specific requirements about the enhancement of microbial growth. The aims of this study were to estimate microbial growth on PVCp tubes which were used to transport water to the types of machines noted above and to compare two methods of evaluating their net microbial growth potential. Four PVCp brands were tested for enhancement of microbial growth using a tube immersion test (the original Biomass Production Potential test) and a new tube filling test. Under field operating conditions, significant amounts of active biofilm accumulated on the PVCp-I tubes thereby impacting on water quality. In the laboratory test, the amount of biofilms on PVCp tubes and bacterial regrowth in the water depended on brand and were influenced by the surface-to-volume (S/V) contact ratio. To protect consumers' health, the microbial growth promoting potential of PVCp tubes should be taken into consideration when these products are in contact with drinking water.

The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains, and the Birth of the Baroque City (review)

Reviewed by: The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains, and the Birth of the Baroque City Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow (bio) The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains, and the Birth of the Baroque City. By Katherine Wentworth Rinne. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2011. Pp. x+262. $65. Since antiquity, the people of the city of Rome have had a complex relationship with their environment. No aspect of that relationship was more important than the provision of water for the city. From the time of the Roman Empire, leading Romans expanded their power in their capital city through beautification projects involving both infrastructure and water features of great technological sophistication. Katherine Wentworth Rinne's book explains with clarity and cleverness how water impacted Rome in the later periods of the Renaissance and into the baroque. She reveals how water flowed across the full spectrum of Roman life, reaching both pontiffs and laundresses, in the crucial years between 1560 and 1630 when Rome transformed from a medieval to a baroque city. Rinne successfully accomplishes her goal by solidly supporting her arguments with contemporary texts and high-quality photos, plans, and maps. The book is divided into nine chapters with an introduction, epilogue, comprehensive notes, and bibliography. These touch on broad themes, from the re-use of ancient aqueducts to fountain design, the spread of water systems from the center of the city to surrounding hilltop estates and gardens, the role of the Tiber River in the city's life before the extensive development of the fountain system, the hierarchy of Rome's water use, and the history of its streets and drains. With the exception of the sixteenth-century fountain architect Giacomo della Porta and his assistant Bartolomeo Gritti, Rinne is not as interested in fountain authorship as she is in its patronage. While traditional scholars may be skeptical of this choice, the book nevertheless leads to fresh thinking about technology and society and about how Rome's fountain art related to urban development and urban infrastructure. Chapter 1, "The Tiber's Flow," considers the use of the river by Rome's churches, monasteries, hospitals, gardens, bathhouses, and manufacturing enterprises before any of the ancient aqueducts were restored or replaced (Acqua Vergine 1560-70; Acqua Felice 1585; Acqua Paola 1607-12). Rinne documents in chapter 2, "The Acqua Vergine and Renovatio Romae," that Pius V's renovatio Romae (restoration of Rome) was a response to the profound sense of physical devastation that hovered over the city as a result of the sack of Rome in 1527 and the horrific Tiber flood of 1530. Rinne argues that the abandonment of the Tiber (polluted by tanners, shops, mills, and illicit dumps) for water brought by the refurbished Acqua Vergine both helped the papacy restore the faithful to the church after the Council of Trent (p. 5), and led to improved hydraulic technology and public health. [End Page 698] In chapter 3, "Surveying the City, Distributing the Water," we learn about water distribution and the need for new water resources when fountains were added to the system in order to equalize pressure throughout. Guglielmo della Porta (1570s) developed a new distribution strategy and saw that water itself was a material that could shape fountain design. Because of his brilliant understanding both of gravity and of the topography of the Campo Marzio, he emerged as a master fountain designer, unequaled for nearly fifty years, until Gian Lorenzo Bernini transformed Rome with his most famous fountains (the Triton, Four Rivers, and Barcaccia, or "Little Boat" of the Piazza di Spagna), and ultimately Nicola Salvi produced the Trevi Fountain by 1762. By 1630 there were eighty documented public fountains in Rome and hundreds of private ones, each connected to one of these aqueducts by hidden underground conduits. Chapter 4, "The Fountains of Giacomo della Porta," focuses on six great fountains: Piazza del Popolo, Piazza della Rotonda, Piazza Colonna, Piazza Navona, Piazza Giudea, and Piazza Mattei. The chapter explains why it took some 120 years (1453-1570) to restore the Acqua Vergine and another twenty-one (1570-91) for della Porta to build the first magnificent fountains in this new Rome. Chapter 5, "Undercurrents and Water Lust," chapter...

Building D1 at Magdala Revisited in the Light of Public Fountain Architecture in the Late-Hellenistic East

Building D1 at Magdala Revisited in the Light of Public Fountain Architecture in the Late-Hellenistic East

LCA of waste prevention activities: A case study for drinking water in Italy

The strategic relevance of waste prevention has considerably increased worldwide during recent years, such that the current European legislation requires the preparation of national waste prevention programmes in which reduction objectives and measures are identified. In such a context, it is possible to recognise how, in order to correctly evaluate the environmental consequences of a prevention activity, a life cycle perspective should be employed. This allows us to go beyond the simple reduction of the generated waste which, alone, does not automatically imply achieving better overall environmental performance, especially when this reduction is not pursued through the simple reduction of consumption. In this study, the energetic and environmental performance of two waste prevention activities considered particularly meaningful for the Italian context were evaluated using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. The two activities were the utilisation of public network water (two scenarios) and of refillable bottled water (two scenarios) for drinking purposes, instead of one-way bottled water (three scenarios). The energy demand and specific potential impacts of the four waste prevention scenarios and of the three baseline scenarios were compared with the aim of evaluating whether, and under what conditions, the analysed prevention activities are actually associated with overall energetic and environmental benefits. In typical conditions, the use of public network water directly from the tap results in the best scenario, while if water is withdrawn from public fountains, its further transportation by private car can involve significant impacts. The use of refillable PET bottled water seems the preferable scenario for packaged water consumption, if refillable bottles are transported to local distributors along the same (or a lower) distance as one-way bottles to retailers. The use of refillable glass bottled water is preferable to one-way bottled water only if a distance beneath 150 km separates bottling plants from local distributors and retailers (except for eutrophication indicator which is always slightly worse). To reduce waste generation and to achieve meaningful potential savings of natural resources, energy and greenhouse gas emissions, a reduction in one-way bottled water consumption in Italy is recommended in favour of the use of public network water and of the establishment of short distance-PET bottles based refilling systems. The development of closed loop recycling of one-way PET bottles, and especially the reduction of the distance along which one-way bottled water is transported, are also important.

“We Surpass the Beautiful Waters of Other Cities by the Abundance of Ours”: Reconciling Function and Decoration in Late Antique Fountains

Compared to their predecessors of imperial times, public fountains of Late Antiquity have triggered only a negligible interest among scholars. This study presents a current overview on the topic. It focuses on newly built fountains and on the visual and functional maintenance of earlier ones in Late Antiquity. Through a combination of architectural, decorative, and technical data, the authors address the overall meaning of both monumental and modest public fountains in the late antique cityscapes of the eastern Mediterranean. A review of late antique fountain architecture in the light of past realizations demonstrates that, even if the trend of grand nymphaea was still present, new investments were more modest and/or cost-effective. This pragmatism also reveals itself in the practice of converting existing monuments into public fountains. The active preservation of older fountains shows an uninterrupted concern for their functional continuity and the upkeep of their pleasant appearance. Besides architectural repairs and the preservation or update of statuary programs, the various alterations made to the hydraulic apparatus demonstrate a great flexibility in the way water was made available to consumers. Even if some of these alterations may at first sight seem negative, in many cases they can also be interpreted as a willingness to increase the comfort of users and to maintain good water quality. Sometimes, however, the changes made to older fountains led to the almost total disappearance of their functions, even if their decorative facade could be maintained. Many of them were turned into genuine castella aquarum or redistribution stations. The wide array of functional alterations analyzed here testifies to a new culture of water management in many late antique cities. Water resources became increasingly diversified through the dissemination of fountains and basins of various sizes in the most densely populated areas. The aesthetic maintenance of earlier fountains, the pragmatic investment in new ones, and the willingness to improve comfort and to bring water resources closer to consumers all demonstrate the existence of a vivid late antique fountain culture.

Horses of a different colour: marmo mischio and Ammannati's remarkable chariot of Neptune

This study provides new observations on the style, materials and significance of the horses and chariot on Bartolomeo Ammannati's Neptune Fountain (1560-74) in the Piazza della Signoria, Florence. The depiction of a four-horse chariot was a bold and ambitious choice for a permanent sculpture of this size, one that stands out in the tradition of both public statuary in Florence and public fountains in sixteenth-century Italy. This article discusses the iconographic tradition of the horse and ancient quadriga in Ammannati's time and, drawing on unpublished documents and other primary sources, the challenges of transporting and carving marmo mischio in this and other works commissioned by Duke Cosimo I de' Medici. The horses were among the few large-scale figural works in this material, showing Ammannati's technical skill in carving this richly hued but fragile stone.

Water, society and urbanization in the 19th century Belgrade: Lessons for adaptation to the climate change

This paper traces urban history of Belgrade in the 19th century by looking into its waterscape in the context of its transformation as the capital of the Princedom of Serbia. Aiming to underline the importance of water as a resource, with the view to contemporary environmental concerns, we explore how citizens historically related to waterscape in everyday life and created a specific socio-spatial water network through use of public baths on the river banks and public fountains, water features and devices in the city. The paper outlines the process of establishing the first modern public water supply system on the foundations of the city?s historical Roman, Austrian and Ottoman waterworks. It also looks at the Topcider River as the most telling example of degradation of a culturally and historically significant urban watercourse from its natural, pastoral and civic past to its current polluted and hazardous state. Could the restitution of the Topcider River be considered as a legacy of sustainability for future generations, and are there lessons to be learned from the urban history which can point to methods of contemporary water management?

Groundwater from Infiltration Galleries Used for Small Public Water Supply Systems: Contamination with Pesticides and Endocrine Disruptors

Infiltration galleries are among the oldest known means used for small public water fountains. Owing to its ancestral origin they are usually associated with high quality water. Thirty-one compounds, including pesticides and estrogens from different chemical families, were analysed in waters from infiltration galleries collected in Alto Douro Demarcated Wine region (North of Portugal). A total of twelve compounds were detected in the water samples. Nine of these compounds are described as presenting evidence or potential evidence of interfering with the hormone system of humans and wildlife. Although concentrations of the target analytes were relatively low, many of them below their limit of quantification, four compounds were above quantification limit and two of them even above the legal limit of 0.1 μg/L: dimethoate (30.38 ng/L), folpet (64.35 ng/L), terbuthylazine-desethyl (22.28 to 292.36 ng/L) and terbuthylazine (22.49 to 369.33 ng/L).

Detection of Chlamydophila psittaci from feral pigeons in environmental samples: problems with currently available techniques

Chlamydophila psittaci (Lillie, 1930) Everett et al., 1999, the pathogenic agent of human ornithosis, is widespread in feral pigeon populations and many cases of transmission from feral pigeons to humans have been reported. The aim of the present study was to detect C. psittaci in environmental samples to find out more about possible transmission routes and, therefore, to assess the zoonotic risk for humans. Fecal samples were collected from nest boxes in a feral pigeon loft. Additionally, samples were taken from the feather dust film covering the water surface of public fountains where pigeons regularly bathe. The samples were tested for the presence of chlamydial antigen using an antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to prove shedding of C. psittaci by feral pigeons. This test detects a genus specific lipopolysaccharide in the outer membrane of the chlamydial bacteria. Samples were tested using the IDEIA PCE Chlamydia Test kit (DakoCytomation) and positive results were verified with IDEIA Chlamydia Blocking Reagents (DakoCytomation). The IDEIA PCE Chlamydia Test yields a high proportion of positive results. However, when IDEIA Chlamydia Blocking was performed, most of the positive results turned out to be negative or could not be interpreted. We conclude that antigen-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay tests are not suitable for detecting C. psittaci in environmental samples. Previous publications where no blocking test was used should be reconsidered critically.

Occurrence of motile Aeromonas in municipal drinking water and distribution of genes encoding virulence factors

Aeromonas-associated cases of gastroenteritis are generally considered waterborne. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential microbiological risk associated with the presence of these bacteria in public drinking water. Over a period of one year, 132 drinking-water samples were monitored in León (NW of Spain, 137,000 inhabitants) for mandatory drinking-water standards and the occurrence of Aeromonas spp. Samples were taken at the municipal water treatment plant, one storage facility, and two public artesian drinking-water fountains. Because of low numbers of coliforms or Clostridium perfringens, the non-compliance rate with microbial standards was 3.8% whereas the percentage of positive samples for motile mesophilic Aeromonas was 26.5%. For all but two samples, Aeromonas was recovered between October and early March when the temperature was below 14 °C and the residual chlorine ranged from 0.21 to 0.72 mg/l. An apparent relationship was observed between rainfall and the incidence of Aeromonas. The 35 selected Aeromonas isolates were identified as A. caviae and A. media. The alt and laf genes were present in all isolates, the aerA gene was present in six isolates, and the four remaining genes investigated ( hlyA, ast, stx1 and stx2) were absent. The combinations of putative virulence genes were: aerA − /hlyA −/ alt +/ ast −/ laf +/ stx1 −/ stx2 − (82.9%) and aerA + /hlyA −/ alt +/ ast −/ laf +/ stx1 −/ stx2 − (17.1%). None of the isolates bore plasmids. As Aeromonas strains harbouring two or more virulence-associated genes have the potential to cause disease by direct transmission via drinking water or by water use in food preparation, it would be advisable to control excessive numbers of these bacteria in drinking-water supplies.

2317 最適可変域および最適多水準の決定問題に対応するロバスト設計法の提案(OS2-1 設計理論・方法論I,OS2 設計理論・方法論)

Robust design enables the products to ensure robust performance in diverse conditions due to increased individuation of user needs and the globalization of markets, and many robust design methods have been proposed. Conventional methods are applicable to design problem in which robustness is ensured by using unique control factor. However, these methods are not applicable to design problem in which robustness is guaranteed only by using a control factor that has an adjustable range or a multilevel. In the present study, a robust design method was proposed to derive the optimum adjustable range and optimum multilevel that enable users to adjust or choose to meet their needs. In the proposed method, first, the relation between the objective characteristic and the adjustable control factor is modeled using the robustness index or the weighted robustness index. The robustness index is to evaluate the feasibility of the objective characteristic value within the tolerance for all the values of the adjustable control factor. On the other hand, the weighted robustness index is added a weighted function to the robustness index, in order to estimate the importance of the objective characteristic value within the tolerance. Second, considering the characteristic of design problems, the optimum adjustable range or the optimum multilevel is derived by using three calculation methods based on two indices. We also applied the proposed method to two examples where the cushion angle of a public vehicle seat and the height of a public water fountain are determined.

Entrances of The Takiyya and Sabil of Sultan Mahmoud

During the Islamic epoch, structures varied between religious - such as mosques- , secular - like, houses, palaces, wakalas, baths, khan, and rab; funerary - like mausoleums and domes; military - like castles; and beneficent - like public fountains and takaiyya - ones. Here is an example of the beneficent structures, the Takiyya and Sabil of Sultan Mahmoud, monument No. 308 in the index of Islamic structures that date back to 1164 H / 1750 A.D is among the beneficent structures that were erected for serving the public. This monument is a complex of structures, encloses an almshouse (takiyya) for teaching religious rites and civil studies, a public fountain for saving drinking water for the people, and a primary school (kuttab) for learning the holy Qur'an for the orphan children. Moreover, a small mosque is annexed to this complex. This research aims at for describing the entrances of this complex, which has four entrances, one leading to the takiyya as the main one, the second leading to the prayer hall or mosque, the third to the public fountain, and the fourth to the primary school (kuttab (. This research is divided into an introduction followed by four items ended with a conclusion, besides some figures. -Introduction: encloses general information about the structure's location and a brief detail of its founder, besides the date of erecting it. -Item I: concerned with describing the main entrance of the complex -Item II: encloses a description of the entrance of the annexed prayer hall or mosque -Item III: describes the entrance of the annexed public fountain (Sabil.( -Item IV: describes the entrance of the annexed primary school (kuttab).

From free good to commodity: Universalizing the provision of water in Paris (1830–1930)

This article focuses on the water distribution network in Paris, from the 1830s, when most Parisians got their water from public fountains and private wells, to the 1930s, by which time almost all of the capital’s inhabitants had been connected to the same network and enjoyed a standard service. It contributes, by a detailed analysis of the entire chain of mediators and mediation, to specify how the modern infrastructure ideal actually took form. In that aim, we analyze the manner in which each actor (public as well as private), in accordance with his/her constraints and resources, which depend on his/her position in the social space, was able to conceive of his/her environment, define objectives, confront problems, make choices and deploy a whole range of frequently innovative practices. In order to understand the underlying factors, our task consists in identifying the actors, modi operandi, progress and phases involved in universalizing water services. Spatially analyzing the extension of the water network, this article demonstrates that the process of universalization, far from being the inexorable and linear outcome of the action of a small number of “major historical forces”, was the upshot of the actions of a whole range of actors acting in specific different geographical, social, economic and technical contexts. The achievement of the “modern infrastructural ideal” as a macro-social phenomenon was ultimately down to a long accumulation process of a multitude of actions, interactions, conflicts and learning processes.

The Public Fountains of the City of Dijon

A modern reader would grasp the nature of this work more readily if its title, which to the uninitiated might suggest a coffee-table book full of beautiful color pictures, were instead something like “Draft Final Interim Report on the Rosoir-Spring Remedy for Public Water Supply of Dijon:

Henry Darcy (1803–1858): Immortalised by his scientific legacy

Darcy’s Law is the fundamental equation describing the flow of fluid through porous media including groundwater. It forms the quantitative basis of many science and engineering disciplines including hydrology, hydrogeology, soil science, civil engineering, petroleum engineering and chemical engineering. The year 2006 marked the 150th anniversary of the publication of Henry Darcy’s most famous text Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon (The Public Fountains of the City of Dijon; Darcy 1856). Buried in its depths was Note D, an appendix that contained the famous sand column experiments and the discovery of Darcy’s Law–a discovery that marked the birth of quantitative hydrogeology. This article describes the many contributions Darcy made to hydraulics, including Darcy’s Law. But what many hydrogeologists may not realise is that Darcy made other contributions to science and engineering that are possibly less familiar. He was the first to describe aquifer resistance, he furnished the very first evidence of the fluid boundary layer, he made major contributions to pipe hydraulics as evidenced by the joint naming of the commonly used Darcy-Weisbach pipe friction equation, he clearly understood the nature of laminar/turbulent flow regimes and recognised the similarity of his law to Poiseuille flow. Many of these experimental observations were facilitated by improvements Darcy made to the Pitot tube that both yielded its modern design and allowed for more accurate measurements of the pipe fluid flow velocity distribution. Finally, not only did Darcy discover Darcy’s Law, he was the first to combine it with continuity to develop the falling head permeameter solution that is still used today. He also applied that unsteady solution to the analysis of spring discharge. Whilst Darcy is immortalised by Darcy’s Law, it is clear that his scientific legacy extends beyond it. Darcy’s contributions to engineering science are described in this article. A brief historical account of Darcy’s life is provided in order to place them within the necessary critical historical context and to provide some accompanying insights on Darcy’s life, personality and motivations. A detailed description of Darcy’s contributions to science and engineering is then presented. A number of excellent papers written recently by Brown (2002a, 2002b, 2003) form the basis for this analysis. Finally, a brief discussion of hydrogeology in the post-Darcy years shows that Darcy’s Law was applied almost immediately after its discovery to the problem of radial flow to a well, first treated by Dupuit (1863). It is here that Darcy’s Law was first applied to a hydrogeologic problem that resembles a modern day aquifer analysis. The use of Darcy’s Law in formalising the foundations for modern day quantitative hydrogeology is also described. It is shown how these early fundamental contributions followed as either a direct consequence of Darcy’s Law or the immediate application of it.

Reluctant Modernization: The Cultural Dynamics of Water Supply in Istanbul, 1885–1950

This article considers the cultural and social dynamics surrounding the water supply in Istanbul. It focuses on the period from the last two decades of the nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth, roughly the period between the introduction of the central waterworks and the closure of the Ottoman mains and public fountains. This article considers the interaction of these two systems and indicates that the supply of water by centralized waterworks and via fountains existed side-by-side for more than six decades, making this dual system a characteristic feature of Istanbul’s water supply for many years. The conflict between various technological solutions was especially pronounced, and during the period under consideration the story of water supply is to a large extent one of competition between fountains and taps. Within this framework, this article examines how previously free water became a priced commodity, and how the centralized supply reinforced structures of social inequality.

Does the veiled look sell? Egyptian advertisers grapple with the hijab

It is an axiom of advertising that, to be effective, an ad must feel and look natural—and yet at the same time represent a prettier, cleaner, better version of reality, a reality to which one can aspire. But if that’s true, who is the ‘Arab woman’, and who would she like to be? The representation of women in Arab television advertising is a mishmash of the diverse cultural currents buffeting the region today. On MBC4, for example, a popular Dubai-based satellite channel that shows mostly American sitcoms and programs, one frequently shown ad depicts an olive-skinned, unveiled Arab woman who tries a skin-lightening cream called Fair and Lovely and then finds a dream job in a department store. Another Arabic-language ad spotlights a beautiful veiled young mother dressed all in white, serving Knorr soup to her family in perfect domestic bliss. In a third, a gorgeous, tanned model in a skimpy sundress throws back a 7up while sunbathing on the concrete bank of a public fountain. Are all these ads targeting the same women, or different women? Do advertising companies have any strategy here, or are they just trying a variety of things to see what works?

From British “Pride” to Indian “Bride”

From British “Pride” to Indian “Bride”