Public Extension Research Articles

An Adoption of Compound Biological Products on Highland Cultivation in The Northern, Thailand

The study is aimed at estimating and explaining the parameters of the adoption process of compound biological products on highland cultivation in the northern, Thailand. In this study, a conceptual framework was developed for the decision to adopt or not to adopt and econometric analyses of the diffusion process are presented using logit model. Empirical data were collected from 97 farmers via questionnaires. The results of a logit model showed that age of household head, household income, households’ debt and households’ access to public extension services were significantly associated with decisions to adopt the compound biological products using for highland cultivation.

English

The combination of agricultural extension system with small scale irrigation development helps to reduce poverty, and now utmost attention is given to it. Extension system development can increases the production and income of the households and helps to improve their overall economic welfare. This study was conducted to assess the strengths and constraints of the public extension system and to provide suggestions on “best fit” solutions and their scale-up opportunities in the small scale irrigation user; furthermore it examines the impact of agricultural extension system on small-scale irrigation on total income, and the probability of being poor or not at household level. Survey was carried out involving 900 extension users’ households and 875 non-extension users in Afar, Oromia and Somali regional states of Ethiopia which was a total of 1775 households. The result of the study by taking indicators of family size extension service users had more families 6.3 to 5.6 in non-user. The total crop income for one season was 41,282 Ethiopian birr while it was 16,276 for non-users. At the time of the data collection the exchange rate for a dollar was 19.67 Ethiopian Birr. Using a Tobit model to determine the total income parameters of education, extension service access, total land holding had a significant level of increment, while with marginal analysis (dy/dx) factors like household leaders’ age, access to credit and dependency ratios were negatively related with total income. In general, the average annual income of extension users with application of small scale irrigation households was significantly greater than non-extension users. This shows that extension users in small-scale irrigation significantly promote total income of a household. The poverty incidence in non-extension user households is by far greater than user households. Thus, for the agrarian country, Ethiopia, extension system development in small-scale irrigation districts has significant impact on poverty reduction, so agricultural extension development should be given emphasis in development planning. Key words: Income, poverty, small-scale irrigation, extension service, Logit, Tobit, marginal effect.

Effect of Farmers’ Organization-based Extension on Service Delivery and Livelihood: Case of Smallholder Dairy in Bangladesh

The main focus of this article was to examine whether or not there are comparative advantages of farmers’ organization-based (FBO) extension service over services provided by other agencies. “Advantage” here means demand driven, effective and sustainable extension services. The approach here was to review published work and unpublished documents with a thematic approach. The content and context of free public extension and paid FBO-based extension in smallholder dairy systems of Bangladesh were examined. The impact of the services on farmers’ quality of life was also examined. Considering the global evidence, this article recommends that vigorous and market-oriented dairy cooperatives, with honest and efficient leadership, can create an advantageous alternative to the weak State-provided extension services. Such cooperatives can Review Article Uddin et al.; AJAEES, 11(1): 1-17, 2016; Article no.AJAEES.24414 2 promote agricultural growth and rural development as well. The sustainability of those FBOs which are self-organized and address strongly-felt needs was high. The sustainability of those cooperatives which were hurriedly-organized by external actors was less so. The authors recommend a special dairy development plan of the Government organized around cooperative extension, can offer training to the staff and interest free credit to the farmers, for establishing processing plants to promote sustainable dairy farming and improved livelihoods.

Factors affecting farmers’ adoption of NERICA upland rice varieties: the case of a seed producing village in central Benin

We investigated dissemination processes of New Rice for Africa (NERICA) varieties in central Benin in 2009 through structured interviews with 1,390 farmers and semi-structured interviews with 203 farmers. By 2009, 74 % of farmers belonging to a farmer group had experience of growing NERICA varieties, while only 29 % of farmers who did not belong to the group had such experience. This difference was attributed to approaches used by the public extension service, which has mainly worked with farmer groups as an entry point for NERICA dissemination. As women accounted for 70 % of farmers in farmer groups, this approach achieved gender equality on the adoption of NERICA varieties. The seed production business has become an incentive for farmers to grow NERICA varieties, as their seed may be purchased at higher than local market price by the public sector for further dissemination. Male farmers tended to sell greater amounts of NERICA varieties, as female farmers have limited land for their cultivation. Around 20 % of farmers had stopped growing NERICA varieties, because they did not receive proper information on their characteristics and the cultivation methods required. They therefore could not be involved in the seed business. Farmers who had never grown NERICA varieties reported that they had limited access to seed. Thus, opportunities to access technologies and business opportunities should be made equal for farmers, especially when they are introduced. In particular, farmer-to-farmer seed exchange needs to be enhanced.

Effectiveness of public agricultural extension services in Tripura state of North-East India

This paper analyses the effectiveness of the public agricultural extension services of the department of agriculture in Tripura state. Extension effectiveness was measured in three levels (input, process and outcome) by using 20 indicators. Information on organizational variables was collected from all the four District Head Offices (Office of the Deputy Director of Agriculture) of the Department of Agriculture in Tripura state. A structured interview schedule was used to collect data from the randomly selected 80 clienteles (farmers) and 80 extension personnel. The result shows that the total expenditure intensity was 3831.13(USD 68.11)/ha/year and expenditure intensity on extension activity was 2260.46 (USD 40.18)/ha/year, the technical manpower: cultivator ratio was very high i.e. 1: 1218 and clientele contact intensity was only 1 hr. 45 min./clientele/year. Whereas, extension service commitment and client accountability of the extension personnel was also higher but organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job performance, job competence index of the extension personnel was low. All the clientele were willing to pay nominally for extension services and the overall clientele satisfaction was 72.45. Based on the results of the study it is recommended to increase the technical manpower in the department and also increase collaboration with Non-Government Organizations NGOs), Self Help Groups (SHGs) and private organizations for extension programme implementation.

Sustaining Smallholder Farmers’ Livelihoods through Rainfall-Deficit-Index-Based Crop Insurance in Drought-Prone Areas: Lessons from Ethiopia

The main objective of this article is to assess the contributions in sustaining the livelihoods of smallholder farmers of rainfall-deficit-index-based crop insurance pilot project based on haricot beans implemented in Ethiopia in 2009. Based on cross-sectional data, assessment results revealed that crop insurance has a potential in sustaining the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, but that there was a problem of information flow, belated payout and inadequate consideration of farmers’ preferences. Scaling-up crop insurance scheme in the future increasingly depends upon building farmers’ knowledge on how the scheme works, through proper agricultural extension services and farmers’ active participation. Signifying crop insurance as an appropriate risk management strategy, the article underlines the importance of public extension services besides appreciating farmers’ motivations to take over the management and leadership of their own affairs when existing structures are not responsive in the context of practicing crop insurance.

The implications of a weak public extension service for the productivity performance of Karoo Agriculture

This study used data on farmers’ preferred sources of information in three areas of their business to investigate what happens to farm productivity when the public extension service is dismantled. The majority of the farmers interviewed preferred the public sector service for grazing information. The group was divided on the best source of animal husbandry advice; 30% preferred the public extension service while 35% indicated that input salesmen, buyers, producers’ organisations or the media were their preferred source. In these two areas one in five farmers indicated that they trust their own experience most, while 13% felt unsure of where to get good advice. These farmers seemed to find it more difficult to find good information on predator management than on either of the other two topics. Nobody considered the state to have any predator management expertise, while 35% of the group preferred advice from professional hunters and 37% indicated that they rely on their own experience. There was an inverse relationship between coverage and the degree of privatisation as expected, but surprisingly a preference for private sources of advice was associated with much better productivity outcomes than a reliance on the public extension service. Keywords: information preferences, productivity, privatisation, extension coverage

Public extension agents' need for new competencies: evidence from a climate variability study in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Changes occurring in the Extension environment include that of climate. Reduced and sporadic rainfall is among the effects of climate change and variability with consequent negative effects on food production. Smallholder agriculture in most developing countries world-wide, including South Africa, is largely rain-fed. Extension agents, therefore, need to constantly improve their capabilities to remain useful to farming communities. The purpose of the paper is to determine Extension agents’ climate variability coping competencies required to effectively support smallholder crop farmers’ production. The study adopted a multi-stage random sampling approach to site and respondents’ selection. Semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data in 2014 from smallholder crop farmers in four municipalities of Limpopo province. Information was also collected from Extension managers and field-level extension agents of the Limpopo Department of Agriculture by means of questionnaires. The most popular climate variability coping strategy promoted by most extension agents was conservation agriculture. Small yield differences between Extension service-recipients and non-recipients indicate that Extension support has minimal effect on farmers’ production. Agents need new competencies regarding correct application conservation agriculture. The study recommends the involvement of extension agents, scientists and farmers in adaptive trials for effective implementation of conservation agricultural practices to improve crop yields. Keywords: Extension agents, climate change and variability, Limpopo province, small-scale farmers, conservation agriculture, adaptive trials

Farmers’ Satisfaction with the Public Agricultural Extension Services in Tripura State of North-East India

In India, the Department of Agriculture (DoA) in the state is the prime public extension service provider which undertakes regulatory function and also management of supplies and inputs. A study was conducted to assess the level of farmers’ (clientele) satisfaction on agricultural extension services of DoA. The study was conducted in Tripura state of North- East India during 2012. The required information was collected from 80 farmers (clientele) of the DoA using structured interview schedule. The findings of the investigation indicated that a majority of the clientele had expressed medium level of relevancy, quality, usefulness and customer (clientele) service satisfaction of the extension services provided by the Department of Agriculture. Based on the findings of the study, it was suggested that the department should provide relevant market information, inputs should be provided timely, extension personnel should be equipped with appropriate teaching materials and methods, the extension personnel should encourage farmers for developing farmers groups or Self-help Group for helping themselves. The research study was conducted by the first author as a thesis work to fulfill the partial requirements for M. Sc. (Agriculture) in Agricultural Extension degree programme.

Training Needs of Indonesian Agricultural Extension Workers for the 21st Century: A Recommendation Based on a Field Study

Agricultural extension in Indonesia has undergone major policy changes, depending on the government in power. In particular, since 1998, the government passed Law No 16/2006, aimed at making the extension system more democratic and participatory, especially for smallholder farmers. Law No. 16/2006 is in line with the “pluralistic and demand-driven extension approach” adopted by many developing countries since 2000, which allowed public and private extension systems to exist side-byside. Success of the new extension approach rests on the degree to which extension workers are able to mobilize smallholder farmers for "demand-driven" development that bases extension on smallholder farmers’ needs. This survey of 78 public extension workers in Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia examined challenges in implementing the pluralistic and demand-driven extension approach, including training needed to help extension workers deal more effectively with these challenges. The study found that the challenges relate to agreeing on extension goals; eliciting collaboration with non-government agencies and other development partners; and using ICTs to narrow the farmers-to-agent ratio. In general, the study found that extension workers need training in communication and development, also known as communication for development (C4D) to effectively facilitate development and navigate the increasing complexity of development programming in the 21st century. Thus, we recommend C4D training for extension workers as a way of enhancing their effectiveness. Fortunately, the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations are promoting this strategy. Therefore, we urge the government of Indonesia to explore C4D as a strategy for strengthening extension in the country.

EXTENSION AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION OF IMPROVED AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN SINAI PENINSULA العوامل الاقتصادیة والارشادیة المؤثرة على تبنى الممارسات الزراعیة المحسنة فى شبه جزیرة سیناء

The research aimed to identify and analyze the socio-economic characteristics of Sahl El Tina selected farmers, to determine the status of selected improved agricultural practices adoption by selected farmers within their farming systems, and to estimate the factors that affect farm households’ decisions to adopt selected improved agricultural practices. The research employed surveyed data of 150 farmers, The analytical tools were used statistical treatments such as percentages, means, and logistic regression analysis were applied to the data, The results of a logistic regression analysis showed that age of household head, education of household head, farmer ‘owns’ plots with any recommended practice, Household income, Farmer heard of improved practices, households’ access to public extension services, households’ access to Sahl El Tina extension services, farmer training, perception on improved practices influence on improved practices adoption at the 1% level, the number of information sources was significant at the 5% level .

TECHNICAL ADVISORY SERVICES IN GHANA

Public extension systems worldwide have been accused of being deficient in management and inefficient in technical advisory service delivery. This is even more in developing countries where fiscal budgetary and human resource allocations are low. This study assessed the current status of technical advisory services delivered to farmers by public sector agricultural extension agents. Survey data revealed that 95% of those with contacts with extension agents rated public extension as the most important source of information. Results revealed that farmers are mostly dissatisfied with some technical advisory packages which points to the need for improvement in these services by the Agricultural Ministry.

EFFECTIVENESS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORKERS IN DELTASTATE, NIGERIA

This study has assessed the effectiveness of agricultural extension workers through the use of six indicators. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 180 farmers and 60 extension workers from 12 Local Government Areas of Delta State. Interview schedule and questionnaire were used to collect data from respondents. On average, farmers have 7 – 12 contacts per year with agricultural extension workers. Age, extent of contact with extension workers, and education level make a significant contribution to farmers' perception on the quality of agricultural extension workers. This study found no significant relationship between adoption level and extent of contact with extension workers. Agricultural message situation is good in terms of purpose, content and treatment but the provision of logistics for field work of extension workers is not sufficient. The study reveals that agricultural extension service in Delta State is not effective. There is no significant difference in the agricultural extension workers' effectiveness in the three agricultural zones of Delta State. For a better coverage of extension cells, more extension workers should be recruited. The Delta State Government should exhibit renewed vigor in properly funding the public agricultural extension service to ensure improved effectiveness.

A Note on Indian Agricultural System Vis---Vis ATMA Model

During the past 60 years, the Indian extension system has evolved to reflect national priorities. At the same time, malnutrition and poverty continue to be persistent problems for the rural poor. The major issues before Indian extension system are: how to improve the effectiveness of extension systems? How to serve the small land holders and marginal farmers in diversified farming systems, and proper allocation of funds, human resources and its management? The World Bank funded Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) focused on bottom-up planning process for technology assessment, refinement and dissemination in order to make the whole extension system demand-driven and farmer accountable. This has helped to strengthen research and extension capabilities, restructure public extension services and test new institutional arrangements for technology transfer with the involvement of all the stakeholders of Government and Non-Government agencies at the district level.

Extension and Matching Grants for Improved Management: An Evaluation of the Uruguayan Livestock Program

Offering matching grants along with extension services is a common tool of agricultural development policy and has the potential to address some of the shortcomings of purely private or public extension. Yet the evidence for the effectiveness of programs that combine extension with matching grants is quite thin. We add to this evidence by evaluating the Uruguayan Livestock Program (ULP), a program that promoted the adoption of intensive management practices by small and medium‐sized cattle producers by offering extension from private providers combined with matching grants for investments. Using inverse probability weighting as applied to an eight‐year panel data set of cattle producers, we find that the ULP had large impacts on net sales and production of calves, but that program impacts on production and sales translated into modest net economic impacts overall. We examine the mechanisms that may have driven ULP impacts, and conclude that program impacts were likely caused by improved management practices rather than by loosening liquidity constraints on producers.

Producer Aspirations and the Payment for the Delivery of Public Extension Visits

The paper examined the relationship between the aspirations of crop farmers and payment for the delivery of public extension visits. Using a survey approach, a semi-structured, self-administered qu...

Thailand's Department of Agricultural Extension and Agrochemical Dependency: Perspectives on Contributing Factors and Mitigation Strategies

Purpose: This paper discusses theoretical, policy and practical issues concerning the problem of ‘agrochemical dependency’ in Thailand, including roles that public extension services play in advocacy or mitigation of agrochemical use.Methodology/Approach: Our research aimed to better understand department of agricultural extension (DOAE) institutional and officials’ perceptions of contributing factors to agrochemical dependency as well as strategies for mitigating agrochemical use. We reviewed relevant policies, web materials and technical cooperation agreements. We supplemented theoretical and document analysis with interviews totalling15 DOAE managers or senior officers comparing Bangkok headquarters and Nan Province perspectives. We refer to relevant secondary literatures for explanatory context.Findings: Results showed differences as well as similarities between views of DOAE officials in Bangkok headquarters and those from one province (Nan) about DOAE priorities, responsibilities and perceived reasons why farmers overuse agrochemicals or do not adopt organic agriculture (OA). A national policy encouraged ‘safe use’ of agrochemicals but not (necessarily or effectively) mitigation while the DOAE still (to a much lesser extent) promoted self-sufficiency and OA alternatives. Interviews and documentary evidence revealed DOAE public–private partnerships with corporate advice, technical support, human resources and learning activities that encouraged or normalized agrochemical use and dependency.Practical Implications: Study results should be useful for governments, donors, international agencies and department officials in policy development, program planning, training design, budgeting and delivery.Originality/Value: This study is unique for: better understanding implications of agrochemical dependency and privatization of public extension services; analyzing factors inhibiting OA adoption; and examining contentious policies, partnerships, and training activities.

Contribution of Public Extension to Food Security of Smallholder Farmers in Limpopo Province, South Africa in an Era of Climate Variability

The paper examined the effectiveness of public extension support for dryland smallholder grain producers. Both probability and non-probability sampling procedures were used to select districts, Loc...

English

Zimbabwe has a pluralistic agricultural extension system. In addition to the public extension service, donors contract private service providers to deliver extension services in specific project areas. This study assesses the impact of an outsourced extension service on rural households in the Mutasa district of Zimbabwe’s Manicaland Province, and examines the financial cost and benefit of this service. The extension service was delivered by a local agribusiness firm and funded by USAID. The study analyses survey data gathered from 94 client and 90 non-client rural households. Propensity score matching was used to identify a subset of comparable clients and non-clients. Descriptive statistics were compared across these groups, and the impact of the extension service on each of several outcome variables was estimated using two-stage least squares regression with instrumental variables to account for selection bias. The results show that the outsourced extension service contributed significantly to household crop income, net crop income and expenditure on farm inputs and services. In addition, clients perceived a range of socio-economic benefits such as better diets and health, improved product quality and job creation. An analysis of the financial cost and benefit of the extension service suggests an annual net incremental benefit of US$11,587, representing a 30% return on the investment made by the donor to finance the service. This estimate excludes socio-economic benefits attributed to the extension service. Key words: Smallholder extension service, impact assessment, net incremental benefit, Zimbabwe.

English

As a result of inability of public extension services to be responsive to the needs of farmers, a new paradigm is emerging. This study was designed to assess farmers’ willingness to pay for extension services and to identify factors influencing the willingness to pay for agricultural information delivery services among the farmers. To achieve the objectives of the study, four PAs were included in the study purposively. A total of 140 households were selected randomly using probability proportional to size technique and interviewed using interview schedules. The proportion of the respondents was increased to 64.2% when the improvement in the quality of the services was stated. Analysis of determinants of the willingness to pay from logit model showed a significant positive relationship between willingness to pay (WTP) and household income, and farm size. Other household characteristics such as age of household head, media exposure, and family size were found to be negative but significantly related to WTP. Key words: Willingness to pay, agricultural extension, commercialization, public service.