Public Drinking Water Systems Research Articles

Private well groundwater quality in West Virginia, USA–2010

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in collaboration with the West Virginia Bureau of Public Health (BPH), initiated an investigation to characterize private well water quality in West Virginia. The objective was to better characterize private well water across various aquifer geologies by testing household drinking water samples and comparing them to EPA's National Primary Drinking Water Standards. The BPH selected ten counties representing three regions to capture geologically diverse areas that represent varying aquifer geology. We collected well-water samples from participating households and analyzed all water samples for 20 constituents currently monitored in public drinking-water systems. We calculated geometric means for each constituent and compared metal concentrations to EPA maximum and secondary contaminant levels by the geologic age of the rock surrounding the aquifer where the sample was obtained. All participating households (n=139) provided a water sample. We detected arsenic at levels higher than the EPA maximum contaminant level in 10 (7.2%) samples. We detected elevated radon-222 in 48 (34.5%) samples. Geologic age of the region was indicative of whether arsenic and radon-222 were present at levels that exceeded current EPA drinking water standards. We found arsenic and radon concentrations were higher in Permian aquifers compared to those of other geologic ages. Homeowners with private wells in areas with Permian aged aquifers could benefit from targeted public health messaging about potentially harmful constituent concentrations in the well water. This may help ensure proper testing and maintenance of private wells and reduce exposure to these constituents.

Water quality detection based on a data mining process on the California estuary

Freshwater is considered one of the most important renewable natural resources of the planet. In this sense, it is vital to study and evaluate the water quality in rivers and basins. The USA and especially the border states like California face the same water problems as its southern neighbours, such as the deterioration of public drinking water systems and the continued appearance of pollutants that threaten domestic water sources. This implies the need to monitor and analyse the water supplies in each region. Several researches have been conducted to develop water quality detection systems through supervised learning algorithms. However, these research approaches set aside the data processing to improve the performance of supervised learning algorithms. This paper presents an improvement of data processing techniques for a water quality detection system based on supervised learning and data quality techniques for the California estuary.

EPA agrees to set limits on perchlorate

EPA will propose federal restrictions for perchlorate allowed in drinking water by Oct. 31, 2018, according to a legal settlement reached last week. More than five years ago, EPA announced its intention to regulate the chemical in drinking water because of public health concern, but the agency has since missed deadlines under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Perchlorate is an oxidizer used in rocket fuel, explosives, and fireworks. The chemical has been found in public drinking water systems that serve some 16 million people in the U.S., according to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), an environmental group that sued EPA for inaction. EPA has identified perchlorate as a contaminant in drinking water, and the National Research Council concluded that perchlorate contamination in drinking water could affect thyroid function. According to the settlement with NRDC, the agency will set a maximum contaminant level in drinking water and an enforceable national

Mistrust at the tap? Factors contributing to public drinking water (mis)perception across US households

How individuals perceive the safety of their public drinking water influences whether they reach for the tap to quench their thirst, or an alternative such as bottled water or a sugary drink. In turn, mistrust of drinking water quality and subsequent reliance on alternative beverage sources can adversely impact health, welfare and the environment. Using data from the 2013 American Housing Survey, we provide the first national, rigorous assessment of individuals’ perception of their public drinking water supply. We found strong evidence that perception of water quality is most influenced by individual and household indicators of socioeconomic status – education level, household income, racial or ethnic minority status, and most importantly foreign-born nativity, especially from Latin America. By contrast, our findings provide little indication that perception is tied to known built environment or neighborhood risk factors affecting water safety and quality. We outline the implications of our findings for proponents of enhanced tap water consumption, including public drinking water systems, county public health agencies, and particularly for environmental justice non-profits.

Impact of the 2012 extreme drought conditions on private well owners in the United States, a qualitative analysis.

BackgroundExtreme hot and dry weather during summer 2012 resulted in some of the most devastating drought conditions in the last half-century in the United States (U.S.). While public drinking water systems have contingency plans and access to alternative resources to maintain supply for their customers during drought, little is known about the impacts of drought on private well owners, who are responsible for maintaining their own water supply. The purpose of this investigation was to explore the public health impacts of the 2012 drought on private well owners’ water quality and quantity, identify their needs for planning and preparing for drought, and to explore their knowledge, attitudes, and well maintenance behaviors during drought.MethodsIn the spring of 2013, we conducted six focus group discussions with private well owners in Arkansas, Indiana, and Oklahoma.ResultsThere were a total of 41 participants, two-thirds of whom were men aged 55 years or older. While participants agreed that 2012 was the worst drought in memory, few experienced direct impacts on their water quantity or quality. However, all groups had heard of areas or individuals whose wells had run dry. Participants conserved water by reducing their indoor and outdoor consumption, but they had few suggestions on additional ways to conserve, and they raised concerns about limiting water use too much. Participants wanted information on how to test their well and any water quality issues in their area.ConclusionsThis investigation identified information needs regarding drought preparedness and well management for well owners.

Estimating Potential Increased Bladder Cancer Risk Due to Increased Bromide Concentrations in Sources of Disinfected Drinking Waters

Public water systems are increasingly facing higher bromide levels in their source waters from anthropogenic contamination through coal-fired power plants, conventional oil and gas extraction, textile mills, and hydraulic fracturing. Climate change is likely to exacerbate this in coming years. We estimate bladder cancer risk from potential increased bromide levels in source waters of disinfecting public drinking water systems in the United States. Bladder cancer is the health end point used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its benefits analysis for regulating disinfection byproducts in drinking water. We use estimated increases in the mass of the four regulated trihalomethanes (THM4) concentrations (due to increased bromide incorporation) as the surrogate disinfection byproduct (DBP) occurrence metric for informing potential bladder cancer risk. We estimate potential increased excess lifetime bladder cancer risk as a function of increased source water bromide levels. Results based on data from 201 drinking water treatment plants indicate that a bromide increase of 50 μg/L could result in a potential increase of between 10(-3) and 10(-4) excess lifetime bladder cancer risk in populations served by roughly 90% of these plants.

Application of ICP-OES for evaluating energy extraction and production wastewater discharge impacts on surface waters in Western Pennsylvania

Oil and gas extraction and coal-fired electrical power generating stations produce wastewaters that are treated and discharged to rivers in Western Pennsylvania with public drinking water system (PDWS) intakes. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) was used to quantify inorganic species in wastewater and river samples using a method based on EPA Method 200.7 rev4.4. A total of 53 emission lines from 30 elements (Al, As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Se, Si, Sn, Sr, Ti, Tl, V, and Zn) were investigated. Samples were prepared by microwave-assisted acid digestion using a mixture of 2% HNO3 and 0.5% HCl. Lower interferences and better detection characteristics resulted in selection of alternative wavelengths for Al, As, Sb, Mg, Mo, and Na. Radial view measurements offered accurate determinations of Al, Ba, K, Li, Na, and Sr in high-brine samples. Spike recovery studies and analyses of reference materials showed 80–105% recoveries for most analytes. This method was used to quantify species in samples with high to low brine concentrations with method detection limits a factor of 2 below the maximum contaminant limit concentrations of national drinking water standards. Elements B, Ca, K, Li, Mg, Na, and Sr were identified as potential tracers for the sources impacting PDWS intakes. Usability of the ICP-OES derived data for factor analytic model applications was also demonstrated.

An upper-bound assessment of the benefits of reducing perchlorate in drinking water.

The Environmental Protection Agency plans to issue new federal regulations to limit drinking water concentrations of perchlorate, which occurs naturally and results from the combustion of rocket fuel. This article presents an upper-bound estimate of the potential benefits of alternative maximum contaminant levels for perchlorate in drinking water. The results suggest that the economic benefits of reducing perchlorate concentrations in drinking water are likely to be low, i.e., under $2.9 million per year nationally, for several reasons. First, the prevalence of detectable perchlorate in public drinking water systems is low. Second, the population especially sensitive to effects of perchlorate, pregnant women who are moderately iodide deficient, represents a minority of all pregnant women. Third, and perhaps most importantly, reducing exposure to perchlorate in drinking water is a relatively ineffective way of increasing iodide uptake, a crucial step linking perchlorate to health effects of concern.

Spatial analysis of boil water advisories issued during an extreme weather event in the Hudson River Watershed, USA

Water infrastructure in the United States is aging and vulnerable to extreme weather. In August 2011, Tropical Storm Irene hit the eastern part of New York and surrounding states, causing great damage to public drinking water systems. Several water supply districts issued boil water advisories (BWAs) to their customers as a result of the storm. This study seeks to identify the major factors that lead water supply systems to issue BWAs by assessing watershed characteristics, water supply system characteristics and treatment plant parameters of water districts in the Mohawk-Hudson River watershed in New York. Logistic regression model suggests that the probability of a BWA being issued by a water supply district is enhanced by higher precipitation during the storm, high density of septic systems, lack of recent maintenance and low population density. Interviews with water treatment plant operators suggested physical damage to water distribution systems were the main causes of boil water advisories during storms. BWAs result in additional costs to residents and communities, and the public compliance of the advisory instructions is low, so efforts must be made to minimize their occurrence. Prior investments in infrastructure management can proactively address municipal water supply and quality issues.

842First Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis Death Associated with Exposure to Tap Water from a Treated Public Drinking Water System

842First Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis Death Associated with Exposure to Tap Water from a Treated Public Drinking Water System

Occurrence of Perfluorinated Compounds in Raw Water from New Jersey Public Drinking Water Systems

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were previously detected (≥ 4 ng/L) in 65% and 30%, respectively, of 23 New Jersey (NJ) public drinking water systems (PWS) sampled in 2006. We now report on a 2009 study of the occurrence of PFOA, PFOS, and eight other perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in raw water samples from 30 intakes (18 groundwater and 12 surface water) from 29 additional NJ PWS. Between 1 and 8 PFCs were detected (≥ 5 ng/L) in 21 (70%) of 30 PWS samples at total PFC concentrations of 5-174 ng/L. Although PFOA was the most commonly detected PFC (57% of samples) and was found at the highest maximum concentration (100 ng/L), some of the higher levels of other PFCs were at sites with little or no PFOA. Perfluorononanoic acid was detected more frequently (30%) and at higher concentrations (up to 96 ng/L) than in raw or finished drinking water elsewhere, and it was found at several sites as the sole or predominant PFC, a pattern not reported in other drinking water studies. PFOS, perfluoropentanoic acid, and perfluorohexanoic acid were each detected in more than 20% of samples, while perfluoroheptanoic acid, perfluorobutane sulfonic acid, and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid were detected less frequently. Perfluorobutanoic acid was found only once (6 ng/L), and perfluorodecanoic acid was not detected. Total PFCs were highest in two reservoirs near an airfield; these were also the only sites with total perfluorosulfonic acids higher than total perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs). PFC levels in raw and finished water from the same source were similar at those sites where both were tested. Five wells of two additional NJ PWS known to be contaminated with PFOA were also each sampled 4-9 times in 2010-13 for nine of the same PFCs. Total PFCs (almost completely PFCAs) at one of these PWS located near an industrial source of PFCs were higher than in any other PWS tested (up to 330 ng/L). These results show that multiple PFCs are commonly found in raw water from NJ PWS. Future work is needed to develop approaches for assessing the potential human health risks of exposure to mixtures of PFCs found in drinking water and other environmental media.

The Future of Water Infrastructure Asset Management, Part 1: Organizing a Centralized Cost Database

The United States has a decentralized water network of nearly 170,000 public drinking water systems, with 54,000 community water systems serving more than 264 million people and the remaining 114,000 noncommunity water systems serving facilities like campgrounds and schools. There are more than 14,700 wastewater treatment facilities and 19,700 sewer collection systems, which are also decentralized. This decentralized system creates a number of stumbling blocks when individual utilities need to conduct benchmarking activities, develop performance measures, standardize data processes, or compare costs in order to determine whether the current infrastructure asset management practices are truly cost‐effective.

The Food and Water System: Impacts on Obesity

The Weight of the Nation™ (WON) conference was held in Washington, D.C. This article presents the issues and topics presented and discussed within the Food and Water System: Agriculture, Access and Sustainability track. Areas for opportunity are outlined in this article.

Committee Report: Getting Information to small systems: Information dissemination survey of engineers and regulators

In a survey of consulting engineers and state regulators who provide services to small public drinking water systems, printed materials, such as books and journals delivered by conventional mail, were the most used and most preferred, followed closely by Internet search.

MTBE in California's Public Drinking Water Wells: Have Past Predictions Come True?

Extensive water quality monitoring data in California are now available for methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) that span the past 16 years. The statewide database includes most of the active (and some inactive) public drinking water wells in the state, most of which have been repeatedly sampled for MTBE during 1995 to 2010. The cumulative detection frequency of MTBE in public drinking water wells in California at any concentration level is approximately 1.6% and 0.9% based on a one-detection criterion and two-detection criterion, respectively. The detection frequency of MTBE is approximately two to three times lower at concentrations above the state drinking water standards. Since 1996, the annual detection frequency of MTBE at any concentration level has ranged from 0.4 to 0.9% (one-detection criterion) and 0.2% to 0.7% (two-detection criterion). Despite repeated sampling, MTBE has been detected in only 1 or 2 years for most public drinking water wells that have ever been found to contain MTBE at any concentration level. The annual average detected concentration of MTBE has ranged from 5 to 16 μg/L (arithmetic mean) and 2 to 5.5 μg/L (median), excluding two outlier samples. MTBE detections are more prevalent in select geographic locations, rather than widespread across the entire state. The cumulative detection frequency for MTBE is approximately 1% for wells that belong to very small and small public drinking water systems (i.e., that serve between 25 and 3,300 people) and is approximately 2% for wells that belong to large and very large public drinking water systems (i.e., that serve >10,000 people). No detections of tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA) were found from 1996 to 2000, although few samples of TBA were collected during this time period. From 2001 to 2010, the cumulative detection frequency of TBA in public drinking water wells in California at any concentration level was approximately 1.4% and 0.2% based on a one-detection criterion and two-detection criterion, respectively. The cumulative detection frequency of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) in public drinking water wells in California is at least six times greater than that of MTBE and TBA, and unlike the trends observed for MTBE and TBA, PCE is often consistently detected in the same wells over time. The results of this analysis can be used to assess historical and current detections of MTBE in public drinking water wells in California. Also, if coupled with other chemical and site-specific information, the results can be used to assess potential future impacts of MTBE on drinking water supplies.

Texas WARN Boot Camps

This article discusses the Texas Water/Wastewater Agency Response Network (TXWARN), and specifically, a series of “bootcamps” developed to bring together members for training on emergency procedures, including the operation of the TXWARN system. These boot camps are offered in the highest‐risk areas to help utilities of all sizes prepare for the unexpected. Basic knowledge about generators is offered to water/wastewater operators, such as how to determine their minimum operational power needs, how to prepare to accept a generator when delivered, and most important, how to connect the generator to operate the most essential utility system operations. The article discusses the development of legislation in Texas requiring public drinking water systems in Harris County to develop emergency preparedness plans, with an option for membership and active participation in a utility‐to‐utility mutual‐aid network recognized by a state agency such as TXWARN.

Parasitos intestinais: elevada prevalência de Giardia lamblia em pacientes atendidos pelo serviço público de saúde da região sudeste de Goiás, Brasil

The aim of this study was to collect data about the incidence of intestinal parasites in patients treated by the Public Health Service in the Municipal Hospital of Cumari, Goias. Parasitological tests were performed from January 2002 to December 2008, by Hoffmann, Pons and Janer’s method, or spontaneous sedimentation. From 1,029 samples, 373 (36.2%) presented parasites’ eggs or cysts, among them were species such as: Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba coli, Hymenolepis nana and Strongyloides stercoralis. Of these, Giardia lamblia presented the highest prevalence being constant over the six years of research. Its prevalence was high among different age ranges, with an average of 33.6% (n = 346). The high indexes of Giardiasis may be associated with the probable contamination of public drinking water systems, since this protozoan resists the action of chlorine added to treated water. This prevalence is similar to previously published studies; on those studies, the implementation of public health policies to control intestinal parasitosis was recommended.

Temporal variability in trihalomethane and haloacetic acid concentrations in Massachusetts public drinking water systems

Previous epidemiological studies in Massachusetts have reported a risk of adverse health outcomes in relation to disinfection by-product (DBP) exposures. Measurement error due to the use of indirect exposure surrogates can lead to misclassification bias in epidemiological studies; therefore, it is important to characterize exposure variability in these populations to assess the potential for exposure misclassification. We used 19,944 trihalomethane (THM) samples and 9291 haloacetic acid (HAA) samples collected in 201 public water systems (PWSs) in Massachusetts to examine temporal variability under different drinking water sources and disinfection types. Annual and seasonal variability was also examined in 46 PWSs with complete quarterly THM4 (i.e., the sum of 4 individual THMs) data from 1995 to 2004 and 19 PWSs with complete HAA5 (i.e., the sum of 5 individual HAAs) data from 2001 to 2004. The quarterly ratio of THM4 and HAA5 and correlations between THM4, HAA5 and individual DBP species were examined to determine the adequacy of using different exposure surrogates in epidemiological studies. Individual PWSs were used to examine monthly variability in relation to quarterly averages. Based on all available matched samples ( n=9003) from 1995 to 2004 data, we found a correlation of 0.52 for THM4 and HAA5. The correlation was stronger among the 62 ground water systems ( r s =0.62) compared to the 81 surface water ( r s =0.45) and 40 mixed water ( r s =0.39) systems. Mean THM4 levels were fairly stable over the 10-year study period for 46 PWSs including 39 PWSs that did not change disinfection. Large reductions (∼40 μg/L) in mean THM4 data were found among seven systems that switched from chlorination to alternative disinfectants. As expected, the highest mean THM4 values were detected for Quarter 3, while the lowest values were found in Quarter 1. The highest HAA5 values were detected in Quarters 2 and 3 and the lowest was found in Quarter 4. Data from four systems showed mean differences up to 66 μg/L (67% change) in successive months and by 46 μg/L compared to quarterly mean concentrations. Although longer-term disinfection by-product temporality may be minimal in this study population, the use of monthly average concentrations for exposure assessment may be needed for some PWSs to minimize misclassification of narrow critical periods of exposure in epidemiological studies.

A strategic approach for Water Safety Plans implementation in Portugal

Effective risk assessment and risk management approaches in public drinking water systems can benefit from a systematic process for hazards identification and effective management control based on the Water Safety Plan (WSP) concept. Good results from WSP development and implementation in a small number of Portuguese water utilities have shown that a more ambitious nationwide strategic approach to disseminate this methodology is needed. However, the establishment of strategic frameworks for systematic and organic scaling-up of WSP implementation at a national level requires major constraints to be overcome: lack of legislation and policies and the need for appropriate monitoring tools. This study presents a framework to inform future policy making by understanding the key constraints and needs related to institutional, organizational and research issues for WSP development and implementation in Portugal. This methodological contribution for WSP implementation can be replicated at a global scale. National health authorities and the Regulator may promote changes in legislation and policies. Independent global monitoring and benchmarking are adequate tools for measuring the progress over time and for comparing the performance of water utilities. Water utilities self-assessment must include performance improvement, operational monitoring and verification. Research and education and resources dissemination ensure knowledge acquisition and transfer.

Disinfection By-products: A Question of Balance

Disinfection By-products: A Question of Balance