Public Diplomacy Tools Research Articles

War and Its Imagery: The Visual Narrative of the Ukrainian State’s Instagram Account Ukraine.Ua as a Tool of Digital Public Diplomacy

ABSTRACT This article presents an empirical analysis of the Instagram account Ukraine.ua, a key component in the Ukrainian government’s communication efforts following the Russian invasion on 24 February 2022. Operated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in tandem with the NGO Brand Ukraine, this account has been instrumental in shaping Ukraine’s digital communication strategy. The research delves into both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the textual and visual content posted on this Instagram page, reconstructing the visual storytelling employed to influence perceptions of Ukraine, highlighting its distinctive features and their coherence with Ukraine’s strategic objectives. The results of the empirical analysis are interpreted through the lenses of Public and Digital Diplomacy, alongside the more specific concepts of Nation Branding, Selfie diplomacy and Reputational Security. The latter, Reputational Security, is pivotal to this analysis, emphasising the significance of a positive national image in managing crises effectively. The insights gleaned from this case study offer an important understanding of Public Diplomacy and its ramifications, especially underscoring the role of digital platforms in the realms of international relations and crisis management. The article concludes by reflecting on how this case study enriches our comprehension of Public Diplomacy and propounds new questions for future scholarly enquiry

BEYOND RHETORIC: CHINA'S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN KENYA THROUGH A POLITICAL-ECONOMIC LENS (2013-2020)

This article explores the evolution of China-Kenya relations within the context of China's broader public diplomacy strategy, focusing particularly on the period from 2013 to 2020. The foundation for these bilateral relations was laid as China opened up to developing countries and African nations gained independence. While formal diplomatic relations between China and Kenya were established in 1963, it was during the 2000s that these relations diversified significantly under the leadership of Chinese President Hu Jintao and Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki. This diversification spanned commercial, cultural, and political domains, becoming a notable example of public diplomacy. With the ascension of Chinese President Xi Jinping, China's public diplomacy experienced a strategic shift towards a more assertive and politically oriented approach. This study argues that under Xi Jinping, new initiatives and strategic plans were introduced, enhancing the existing framework of China's public diplomacy. A key element of this transformation was the increased emphasis on foreign aid, which gained momentum through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Between 2013 and 2020, China's foreign aid to Kenya played a pivotal role in reshaping the structure of Chinese public diplomacy. This period saw a continuation and expansion of activities in culture and media, established in earlier phases, alongside a growing focus on infrastructure development, humanitarian aid, healthcare assistance, and educational and cultural projects. The study begins by examining traditional public diplomacy tools such as cultural exchanges, high-level visits, and educational initiatives. It then discusses specific projects implemented between 2013 and 2020, analyzing their contributions to public diplomacy efforts. Finally, the article provides an overview of these projects, as documented in AidData, highlighting their impact on the bilateral relations between China and Kenya.

Constructing Chinese Firms as Development Catalysts: State-Firm Public Diplomacy Collaboration in Kenya

ABSTRACT The debate surrounding China’s public diplomacy in Africa highlights how the state coordinates and leverages Chinese actors, including firms, to advance diplomatic objectives. However, this article questions the notion of unidirectional state dominance by exploring the intricate interactions between the Chinese state and firms around promoting and publicizing corporate social responsibility (CSR), which is conceptualized as a public diplomacy tool of corporations to engage with the foreign public. Using the lens of public diplomacy, the author examines the unconventional state-firm interplay in the symbolic domain, shedding light on practices of China’s expansion in Africa. Through two empirical cases, the author demonstrates the interdependence and collaboration between the Chinese state and firms, revealing their divided interests and contested cooperative efforts to enact public diplomacy in Kenya.

An Analysis of the Potential of Philippine Sports as a Tool for Public Diplomacy

With the growing lapses of sports-based strategies in the Philippine setting, the gap between its theoretical foundation and its praxis has ballooned, predominantly attributed to the need for more academic work in this area. Correspondingly, this study provides implications for sports-related strategies for predicting a positive public image of the Philippines and harboring peaceful state cooperation through the merits of soft power. To achieve this, this paper has contrived the objectives, including (1) identifying the implications of hosting the SEA Games 2019 for the country by examining the management of the Philippine government, (2) determining the implications of the elite sporting success of Filipino athletes in sports tournaments, and, lastly, (3) identifying the potential of sports through the implementation of sports-related strategy by the Philippines. Moreover, this paper implements qualitative methods, including document review and key informant interviews, to gather pertinent testimonials from various sub-sectors in sports, including national elite athletes, professional coaches, and sports experts, to assess the state of Philippine sports and significantly determine its potential as a serious form of public diplomacy, particularly in achieving its intended outcomes. This study infers that Philippine sports have the capability to influence the country's stature with consideration of the global media as well as advance its foreign policy of international cooperation.

THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN’S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY: MAIN FEATURES AND PROSPECTS

The article aims to create a comprehensive view of Kazakhstan’s public diplomacy among the readership. It concludes that this phenomenon originated in the first decades of the existence of the Kazakh Khanate. At a time when the Kazakh lands were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, the Kazakh people had no opportunity to pursue an independent foreign policy, the only element of which was public diplomacy. The revival of national public diplomacy became possible after Kazakhstan gained independence in 1991. For the last three decades, the main objective of Kazakhstan’s public diplomacy has been to create a positive international image of a newly independent Kazakhstani State and help its economy attract foreign investments. Such guidelines were designed to make favorable conditions for ensuring the socio-economic development of the country and the implementation of its foreign policy goals. Nowadays, Kazakhstan’s public diplomacy has three dimensions: political, economic and cultural, the main one of which is political. In the foreseeable future, Astana will remain interested in the active use of public diplomacy tools, in strengthening its status as one of the world’s best masters in this field.

China’s peacekeeping activities within the UN: Features, challenges, and prospects

In recent years, China has been vigorously strengthening its international authority, consistently building its image as a responsible great power. One of the vivid manifestations of these efforts has been China’s active involvement in peacekeeping activities under the auspices of the United Nations. Currently, among the permanent members of the UN Security Council, China is the largest supplier of contingents for UN peacekeeping operations and the second largest donor of financing for these operations. At the same time, the PRC’s peacekeeping policy faces a number of endogenous and exogenous risks and challenges that remain somewhat understudied. The first section of the paper examines the key stages in the development of the PRC’s approaches to peacekeeping. It is shown that while all other members of the UN Security Council are gradually reducing the number of contingents and cutting funding to UN peacekeeping activities, China, on the contrary, is consistently increasing its of support for UN peacekeeping operations. The second section identifies current trends and prospects for the development of China’s peacekeeping activities. The author emphasizes that China is not only actively engaging into the existing UN peace-keeping mechanisms and initiatives, but also offers its own original conceptual approaches to address the challenges related to peacemaking and peacebuilding. The concept of ‘developmental peace’ proposed by Chinese researchers is of particular interest in this context. At the same time, as shown in the third section, this activity of the PRC faces a number of problems and challenges. The author notes that China’s objective contribution to peacekeeping activities and international recognition of its efforts are actually very asymmetrical. To this should be added the active efforts of Western countries aimed at discrediting the peacekeeping activities of the PRC, manifested in pushing of narratives about the exceptional selfishness of Chinese initiatives and China’s desire to achieve unilateral advantages in the ‘Taiwan issue’ by exploiting peacekeeping agenda. Assessing the prospects for the development of the PRC’s peacekeeping activities in these conditions, the author emphasizes the need to deepen cooperation with various regional organizations; increase the use of public diplomacy tools and improve the legislative framework for peacekeeping in China itself.

The Eurovision song contest and the potential of unintended events and public diplomacy: how exposure to an international mega-event shapes external views of the EU

ABSTRACT This article focuses on the Eurovision Song Contest (ESC) as a potential tool for EU public diplomacy. Institutionally, the ESC, a pan-European international mega-event that forms images of Europe, is not related to the EU. Yet, given the strong link between the ESC and the notion of Europe, the article suggests that the ESC might have unintentionally become a public diplomacy tool for the EU. This argument is supported by showing how public views of the EU in a nonmember country, Israel, changed following its hosting of the ESC in 2019. A longitudinal survey was used to examine the impact of the ESC on Israelis’ sympathy for the EU six months before the 2019 ESC and immediately after hosting the contest. The findings indicated that watching the ESC final increased sympathy for the EU. This demonstrates the positive influence of exposure to the ESC on the views of the EU, highlighting the potential role of the ESC as a tool of public diplomacy for the EU. The findings also illustrate a broader potential for understanding public diplomacy consequences from real-life events.

Публичная дипломатия США в отношении центральноазиатских стран

Introduction. Public diplomacy is an effective foreign policy instrument of the state. Public diplomacy is understood as the activity of an actor aimed at achieving foreign policy objectives by establishing and deepening long-term interstate relations. The purpose of such activities is to inform foreign audiences as well as broadcast the principles of national policy beyond the borders of one’s own state. Public diplomacy is designed to influence those who have the opportunity to shape public belief systems. Methods and materials. The methodological basis of the study was a transnational approach, which allows us to reveal the role of state and non-state actors in international relations. The work uses a systematic approach in order to form a holistic view of American public diplomacy as an instrument of “soft power.” To identify the individual tools used by the United States in promoting public diplomacy in each individual Central Asian country, a comparative method was used. Analysis and results. Public diplomacy seems to be an important tool of the American administration in the most important foreign policy areas. The priority instrument of US public diplomacy in the Central Asian region is the support of civil society and non-profit organizations. Using grant support mechanisms, the role of public organizations is strengthened, and dialogue between civil society and government authorities is encouraged in the formation and development of socio-economic policy. The second relevant tool is media support and working with information consumers among various segments of the population. According to the results of the study, it was revealed that these projects were most effectively implemented in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan. The third most successful tool is education, whose work is based on grant programs both in the republics and in the United States. Systematic work carried out, taking into account a deep understanding of the internal processes in the Central Asian republics as well as the active use of public diplomacy tools, allows the United States to strengthen its foreign policy potential in the region.

Digital Branding As a Tool of Public Diplomacy of the DACH Group of Countries

This article consists of discourse analysis and application of digital technologies in public diplomacy. The phenomenon of territory branding, its connection with public diplomacy in international relations, and how this practice was implemented by the largest German-speaking countries: the Federal Republic of Germany, the Republic of Austria and the Swiss Confederation are explored. Methodologically, scientific literature, mass media and materials of government organizations are used to analyze how certain subjects can use branding technologies. In conclusion, it is concluded that, although digital branding cannot solve problems by itself, it undoubtedly has an impact on interaction with foreign users, to a greater or lesser extent within the framework of public diplomacy.

The development of the Vatican’s sports diplomacy tools in the 21st century

The article discusses the Vatican's public diplomacy tools, specifically the phenomenon of sports diplomacy. Sports diplomacy is a new tool for the realization of soft power by the Vatican, which gained its relevance during the pontificate of Francis I. This type of cultural diplomacy is characterized by significant dynamism, connection with socio-economic and political trends, and for a long time was out of the Vatican's sight due to moral and ethical contradictions inherent in this type of public diplomacy, as well as the lack of resources for the implementation of initiatives in this area. The contradictory nature of sports diplomacy for the Vatican is due, on the one hand, to the "ideal" sport's focus on the cultivation of moral and ethical values approved by the Roman Catholic Church (compassion, respect, love, harmony, and joy), and, on the other hand, to the political engagement and business orientation of "real" professional sport. Due to the traditional role of the RCC as a source of moral and ethical guidelines for Catholic society, sports diplomacy for the Vatican involves significant reputational risks. These risks stem from many factors, among them: the exploitation of athletes, the spread of dishonest sporting behavior (e.g., doping) within sports organizations, and the inconsistency with the values imposed by the sports industry, among them body worship, hedonism, consumerism, hoarding, individualism, and the obsession with success. In many ways, the emergence of this tool has been a forced measure and is linked to the changing territorial distribution and national composition of Catholicism, which has necessitated the need to find new ways to establish a dialogue with the Vatican's target audience, which is predominantly made up of people from developing countries in the global South. These circumstances have led to a decline in the popularity of the RCC and its doctrines, as well as a decline in the attractiveness of the Christian way of life and Christian values among believers. They have also become an indicator for the RCC of the need to respond to the changes that have taken place and to seek new tools of public diplomacy that can bring the Church back to the attention of its target audience. The article examines the Vatican's views on the values of sport and the sports industry, discussing their relevance to Christian values, as well as acceptable formats for the Vatican's participation in the sporting life of society. The article discusses the Vatican's priorities, including its predominant focus on amateur sports. At the same time, it reveals evidence of the Vatican's intention to increase its representation in professional sports, which is expressed in the creation of specialized agencies, inclusion in sports associations and societies, and involvement of professional athletes. The current limitations of Vatican sports diplomacy are also examined. Conclusions are drawn about the Vatican's interest in the development of sports diplomacy and its desire to use this tool to achieve strategic goals.

Korean Wave as a Tool of Public Diplomacy: The Impact of South Korean Cultural Globalization in Indonesia from 2018 to 2023

Korean Wave as a Tool of Public Diplomacy: The Impact of South Korean Cultural Globalization in Indonesia from 2018 to 2023

Public Diplomacy in ASEAN Youth Interfaith Camp (AYIC) to Develop Indonesia’s Image in ASEAN

This research focuses on Indonesia's influential position in ASEAN and its image, considering both strengths and weaknesses. Despite being known for natural beauty and cultural richness, the country faces challenges that affect how it is perceived globally. The study examines the ASEAN Youth Interfaith Camp (AYIC) as a public diplomacy tool aimed at enhancing Indonesia's image. Through qualitative research, using official documents and interviews, the study explores how AYIC contributes to projecting Indonesia as a tolerant and harmonious nation. The research sheds light on the program's success in dispelling religious stereotypes, ultimately improving Indonesia's international image and advancing its national interests through soft power.

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN THE ACTIVITIES OF THE FIRST LADY (on the Example of Ukraine and Poland)

The purpose of the study is to identify the peculiarities of the First Lady's activities in the field of public diplomacy on the example of Ukraine and Poland. The research methodology is based on the principles of scientificity, historicism, systematicity, and general scientific and specialised methods, including the biographical method. The scientific novelty of the research results lies in raising the issue of the institution of the First Lady as a subject of public diplomacy and analysing the activities of the First Ladies of Ukraine and Poland in this area. Conclusions: Based on the activities of the First Ladies of Ukraine and Poland, it can be argued that Agata Kornhauser-Duda and Olena Zelenska have changed the perception of the role of presidential wives in the development of public diplomacy. Despite the first mentions of public diplomacy in the late nineteenth century, the testing of its tools in the first half of the twentieth century, active involvement in academic and professional use began in the second half of the twentieth century, and in Ukraine in the twenty-first century. Elements of public diplomacy can be seen in the activities of the wives of the first persons of Ukraine and Poland during the struggle for statehood: Maria Hrushevska, Aleksandra Piłsudska, Olha Petliura, and Michalina Mościcka. They created the historical basis for the use of public diplomacy tools by First Ladies. The modern First Ladies of Ukraine and Poland in addition to their traditional duties have mastered the tools of public diplomacy to create a positive image of their countries in the minds of other countries. The use of this toolkit gained particular importance with the outbreak of Russia's large-scale war against Ukraine and, in fact, the entire civilised world on 24 February 2022. Agata Kornhauser-Duda and Olena Zelenska demonstrate that the First Lady's Institute belongs to the public diplomacy community.

Proniknovenie inostrannoj tanceval'noj kul'tury i evolyuciya ee osvoeniya v sisteme obrazovaniya Kitaya

The interaction of dance cultures is an inevitable process of evolution of human civilization. This article is intended not only to shed light on the spread of foreign dances in China, but also to assess their role in the modern education system of the country. The main emphasis is on the dissemination of foreign dance culture as a tool of public diplomacy. Some promising vectors are identified, the consideration of which will allow to continue the effective evolution of foreign dance culture in China.

The perception of the Tiktok platform as China’s sharp power instrument in US politics

Public diplomacy can be defined as managing a country’s foreign policy objectives and protecting its national interests by establishing direct social relations and communication with the citizen or government of another country. Public diplomacy, which we know that each country has its own strategy, is handled from a different perspective in China as well. China, which has been identified with the concept of sharp power is confronted with the claims of the new rival of the USA. Recently, claims from the United States that China-based social media platform TikTok has been carrying out sharp power activities have come to the fore. TikTok is considered to be a major force for China as it has over one billion active users. However, there are debates as to whether China manipulates the peoples of other countries through this practice. Censorship and manipulation, the two main concepts of sharp power, are used in TikTok or does TikTok exist independently? The purpose of this article is to explore whether the TikTok platform, one of China's important public diplomacy tools, is perceived as a threat by American politicians. For this purpose, TikTok CEO Shou Zi Chew’s US Congress testimony were analyzed by content analysis method. As a result, it has been confirmed that American politicians perceive TikTok as a sharp power instrument of the Chinese Communist Party. It has been observed that concerns have been expressed about the concepts of censorship, manipulation, propaganda, control, and influence, which are the five elements of sharp power. It has been found that the TikTok platform is perceived as a propaganda device, a psychological warfare weapon, and not a public diplomacy tool or soft power element.

CHINA’S EDUCATION EXCHANGE DIPLOMACY IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC IN COMPARISON WITH THAT OF THE U.S. AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR CHINA

Education exchange has increasingly been identified as an integral overture in China and U.S. foreign policy toward the Asia-Pacific. Legitimate but soft attributes rationalize its prominence though its effects are long-term and seemingly intangible. To win the “hearts and minds” of regional people, China and the U.S. have deployed this public diplomacy tool but differently. This article discusses the criticality of government-initiated education exchange within China and U.S. national strategies and their practice in the Asia-Pacific from a comparative perspective. It asserts that education exchange is well-situated within the two giant powers’ foreign affairs management toolkit to rejuvenate and reinforce their images in the region. Chinese initiatives prove adaptable to the region, whereas the U.S. disregards regional variations. However, it does not imply that China would utilise the education exchange tool more effectively than the U.S. Insights into their practice of education exchange diplomacy suggest some implications for China.

COVİD-19 PANDEMİSİ DÖNEMİNDE KARŞILIKLI ANLAYIŞ BAĞLAMINDA DEĞİŞİM DİPLOMASİSİ

Around the world, cultural and educational events are employed as a component of public diplomacy. Due to cultural and educational activities, there is a growth in mutual understanding between nations and a strengthening of long-term relations. Countries must listen to what others have to say in order to develop and effectively articulate their own interests. This is necessary for exchange programs to be effective public diplomacy tools. People get more connected to one another as they get to know and understand one another, miscommunications are cleared up, and lasting relationships are developed to open doors for various types of partnerships. By assessing virtual Erasmus+ mobility in the framework of exchange diplomacy during the Covid-19 Pandemic phase, this study seeks to ascertain the status of making a contribution to public diplomacy. Answers to the research questions posed in the purpose section of the study are sought through structured interviews with international students using descriptive analysis, one of the qualitative research methodologies. This study is the first to evaluate virtual mobility within the context of exchange diplomacy, and it shows that programs for virtual exchange will also support public diplomacy.

Chinese Development Aid and Finance: Effective Soft Power Tool or Public Diplomacy Liability? A Spatial Study of Project Influence

China has risen to become a significant donor of foreign aid and assistance in recent years. As with other major donors, such economic flows in the provenance of China are tied to the latterʼs strategic aims. Specifically, the use of economic outlays as a tool of soft power and public diplomacy has been identified as a key motivation in Chinese disbursement decisions. However, studies examining the empirical success of Chinese foreign aid and assistance in acting as such have, so far, come to diverging conclusions. This study offers an investigation of the spatially diffused effects of infrastructure project sites tied to Chinese funding sources on local public opinion in Ecuador, a country that offers an interesting case showcasing the effects of the unfolding great power competition on local public opinion. We find, that controlling for socio-economic and ideological individual characteristics holding the potential to affect survey respondentsʼ views on China, project influence is significantly and negatively correlated with levels of trust in the Chinese government. These results suggest that the frequently mediatized negative local spillover effects of Chinese-funded or financed infrastructure projects make it unlikely for Chinaʼs foreign aid and assistance to achieve its envisioned purpose of furthering the countryʼs soft power and positive image beyond its borders.

Evolution of US public diplomacy: Domestic political determinants, priorities and new challenges

Public diplomacy remains one of the most dynamic and important areas of the modern US foreign policy. As such, the US public diplomacy, — its institutional structure, principles of functioning, key priorities, etc. — attracts increasing attention within both Russian and foreign academic literature. However, for a more complete understanding of the contemporary US public diplomacy specifics and prospects, it seems appropriate to try to fit it into a broader context of the evolution of the US political system in general. The first section of the paper identifies the major domestic political factors that determined the development of the US foreign policy mechanism, as well as the key stages of its evolution. The author argues that one of the key trends in the almost 250-year history of the American political system development was its gradual democratization, aimed to promote inclusion of a larger section of population in political processes. The second section examines the role of public diplomacy within the framework of the contemporary US foreign policy. The author notes that the latest developments in information and communication technologies have turned publicity and PR-campaigns into the most important factors of domestic political competition in the United States in the 21st century. The Internet and social networks have opened up virtually unlimited opportunities for political campaigning both inside and outside the state, giving a new impetus to the development of the US public diplomacy. At the same time, digital technologies have also generated new challenges, raising the problem of ensuring information security in the face of expansion of social networks. In this regard, the third section touches upon the issues of evaluating the effectiveness of the US public diplomacy. The author concludes that in terms of possible directions for further research the interactions between the United States and the EU countries which share common values are of particular importance. This may allow for a better understanding of the possibilities and limits of the US public diplomacy tools based on the institutions of a developed civil society.

Do MENA countries practice digital diplomacy? An analysis of their embassies’ websites in Spain

This research carries out an analysis of the websites published by MENA countries’ embassies with a presence in Spain, in order to understand whether they practice digital diplomacy. Such activity is a low-cost, wide-ranging public diplomacy tool. The analysis covers a two-year period (2020-2022) that coincides with the Covid-19 pandemic, a context that prompted the digitization of many sectors. The article contributes to the literature on Arab and Israeli digital diplomacy, as well as on digital diplomacy as practiced by embassies. Specifically, this exploratory analysis examines the webpages and published press notes of four countries’ embassies, including Saudi Arabia, Israel, Morocco, and Qatar. These countries were chosen because they have the most robust websites in Spanish, together with the fact that they were the MENA countries whose governments pioneered the use of Twitter as an instrument of digital diplomacy. The article examines the topics and interpretations provided by the press notes published on these embassies’ websites. A discourse analysis methodology with references to the original sources is applied. Topics and interpretations are classified into four types of public diplomacy: media diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, niche diplomacy and nation branding. The conclusion is that the MENA countries studied neglect digital diplomacy on their websites in Spain, missing out on the opportunities it represents. The apparently four most digitized embassies in this group have errors on their webpages and often only publish messages from their respective foreign ministries, focusing on regional and internal issues rather than on their bilateral relationship with Spain. This is especially true of Saudi Arabia and Qatar.