Public Charging Points Research Articles

The impact of energy transition on distribution network costs and effectiveness of yardstick competition: an empirical analysis for the Netherlands

We assess the impact of regional differences related to energy transition on average costs and allowed revenues for a panel of Dutch electricity distribution system operators (DSOs) subject to yardstick competition. Yardstick competition entails that the allowed revenues of DSOs are based on the average costs of the entire industry, which requires that these DSOs are comparable. This comparability requirement is challenged by the penetration of distributed generation and other distributed energy resources, which may cause regional differences among DSOs. Estimating an average-cost function for the entire population of Dutch DSOs for the period 2012–2020, we find that the installed capacity of solar PV, installed capacity of on-shore wind and number of public electric-vehicle charging points have a significant effect on unit costs of DSOs. If yardstick competition does not take these effects into account, the allowed revenues for some DSOs (having above-average shares of energy-transition variables) are too low, whereas allowed revenues for other DSOs (having below-average shares of energy-transition variables) are too high. We find that taking the impact into account can change the price caps of individual DSOs with a percentage up to around 20%.

Germany's public EV charging points: Analysing the 2023 state of expansion

AbstractThe European Climate Law sets a legally binding target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. In this regard, in 2023 the EU Environmental Council decided that from 2035 onwards only CO2‐neutral new cars will be licensed in the European Union. Simultaneously, since the energy crisis caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, fuel prices increased in Germany. This has made more and more households think about purchasing an e‐car. However, not every household has the opportunity to install their own wallbox, and when travelling long distances, e‐car users are dependent on the availability of ample public charging stations. Against this background, with a special focus on rural areas, this paper considers the questions whether and where spatial inequalities in the accessibility of public charging stations might currently exist. To approach these questions, based on an empirical analysis of the 2023 official location data of public charging points in Germany, we examine the nationwide distribution, accessibility and available capacity of public charging stations in Germany at small‐scale from the point of view of the ‘household’ as well as those who travel by e‐car within Germany. In order to evaluate the location data of public charging stations we mainly use raster‐based accessibility analysis methods as well as isotropic kernel intensity estimates. We found that, in contrast to the common belief, the network of public charging stations is quite dense. However, taking a closer look reveals that the charging infrastructure in Germany has so far been tailored to the needs of intra‐regional travelers (commuting, shopping, leisure) rather than to those of the residential population with no access to their own wallbox (daily recharging in close proximity to one‘s home) or the mid‐ to long‐distance travelers.

Multi-Criteria assessment of the user experience at E-Vehicle charging stations in Germany

We propose an assessment framework for the user experience at public electric vehicle charging stations in Germany, which enables a structured analysis from a driver’s perspective. The assessment criteria were derived from 20 interviews with battery electric vehicle drivers and corroborated by existing literature. Seven criteria are considered as particularly relevant: ease of use, green power, comfort, functionality, price, price transparency, and availability. Using Saaty’s Analytic Hierarchy Process approach, the weights assigned to these criteria were determined in an online survey with 108 drivers of battery electric vehicles. The results indicate the particular importance of availability and functionality. The assessment framework includes value scores that indicate the match between specific charging stations and the assessment criteria. The conceptual framework can help to support operators of public charging points and electric mobility providers in the design of their services and products, as well as guide policy-makers.

Optimum Scenarios of EV Charging Infrastructure: A Case Study for the Saudi Arabia Market

The lack of an EV charging infrastructure is of the top five barriers preventing the adoption of EVs on a large scale. A long charging time is also one of the five barriers, according to the latest survey published by the IEA in 2021. The estimated increase in demand for EVs is a big challenge in many countries all around the world. This challenge exists in many EU and Middle East countries. The main reason for this problem is the requirement of huge funds to install enough public charging points that result in satisfactory charging services. Hence, the phase-out plans of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles can be carried out successfully and smoothly. Unfortunately, there is a trade-off between the cost of installing charging points and EV charging time. Therefore, it is important to optimize both factors simultaneously. This way, the charging services can be provided at the minimum possible cost and at a satisfactory level of quality. This study determines the optimum ratio of the number of chargers to the number of EVs in a certain province. The optimal number of chargers that are necessary to optimally serve a certain number of EVs has been determined. Two well-known evolutionary search techniques have solved the optimization problem: particle swarm optimization (PSO) and genetic algorithms (GA). Both algorithms have succeeded in providing many optimal charging infrastructure scenarios. Hence, the decision maker can select the most convenient scenario from several alternatives based on the available budgets and the most convenient charging time.

Analysis of Charging Infrastructure for Private, Battery Electric Passenger Cars: Optimizing Spatial Distribution Using a Genetic Algorithm

To enable the deployment of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as passenger cars in the private transport sector, suitable charging infrastructure is crucial. In this paper, a methodology for the efficient spatial distribution of charging infrastructure is evaluated by investigating a scenario with a 100% market penetration of BEVs of (around 1.3 million vehicles) in Berlin, Germany. The goal of the evaluated methodology is the development of various charging infrastructure scenarios—including public and private charging—which are suitable to cover the entire charging demand. Therefore, these scenarios are investigated in detail with a focus on the number of public charging points, their spatial distributions, the available charging power, and the necessary capital costs. For the creation of these charging infrastructure scenarios, a placement model is developed. As input, it uses the data of a multi-agent transport simulation (MATSim) scenario of the metropolitan area of Berlin to evaluate and optimize different distributions of charging infrastructure. The model uses a genetic algorithm and the principle of multi-objective optimization. The capital costs of the charging points and the mean detour car drivers must undertake are used as the optimization criteria. Using these criteria, we expect to generate cost-efficient infrastructure solutions that provide high usability at the same time. The main advantage of the method selected is that multiple optimal solutions with different characteristics can be found, and suitable solutions can be selected by subsequently using other criteria. Besides the generated charging scenarios for Berlin, the main goal of this paper is to provide a valid methodology, which is able to use the output data of an agent-based, microscopic transport simulation of an arbitrary city or area (or even real driving data) and calculate different suitable charging infrastructure scenarios regarding the different optimization criteria. This paper shows a possible application of this method and provides suggestions to improve the significance of the results in future works. The optimized charging infrastructure solutions for the Berlin scenario show capital costs of between EUR 624 and 2950 million. Users must cover an additional mean detour of 254 m to 590 m per charging process to reach an available charging point. According to the results, a suitable ratio between the charging points and vehicles is between 11:1 and 5:1. A share of fast charging infrastructure (>50 kW) of less than ten percent seems to be sufficient if it is situated at the main traffic routes and highly frequented places.

Electric Vehicle Infrastructure – Concepts and Challenges for Greece

Electric Vehicles (EVs) represent a self-evident solution to environmental issues. Particularly in urban areas, the inhabitants must cope with increasing air pollution from industry and traffic. Promoting the electrification of individual transport can be part of the solution not only to slow down climate change but also to improve the quality of life of city dwellers. Athens has one of the highest emission rates in Europe due to traffic. The Greek Government published the National Plan for Energy and Climate in late 2019. A key message of this plan is that by 2030, one in three vehicles sold in Greece should be equipped with an electric drive. Additionally, Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are about to be promoted, which shall lead to a more environmentally friendly electricity mix (29.2 % share of RES in 2020, aiming for 61 % share of RES in 2030). This is necessary for EVs to achieve a reasonably well-to-wheel CO2 and NOx balance, not only a reasonable tank-to-wheel balance. Government subsidies are intended to create incentives to buy an electric vehicle. Including tax benefits, these subsidies can support the purchase of an electric vehicle for up to 10,000 €. Considering the comparatively low purchasing power in Europe and the lacking Charging Infrastructure, this is an ambitious target. Declining prices for EVs and charging facilities also enable countries with lower GDP per capita to electrify their mobility. This paper’s purpose is to examine whether Greece’s above objective of transport electrification is achievable and in addition to highlighting the strategies and methods that must be utilized to electrify Greece’s private transport. Therefore, the methodology followed includes the calculation of the minimum number of Public Charging Points (PCPs) required and subsequent analysis of pioneer countries regarding EV Infrastructure that Greece should be adapt to electrify its private transport appropriately. Concluding this paper's results show, that Greece's objective is achievable.

Impacto de los Vehículos Eléctricos sobre la Red de Distribución. Análisis bajo distintos modos de operación

Electric mobility is a sustainable alternative that allows the reduction of energy consumption and the emission of polluting gases with respect to conventional mobility. There are projections that predict an increase in the use of electric vehicles. Thus, several lines of research deal with the characteristics of the integration of these new demands and the effects that will occur on electrical systems. The main goals of this paper are: (i) to determine the impact of a moderate insertion of public charging points on the network; (ii) to evaluate the penetration level of EVs of residential users for slow and semi-fast home charging modes (G2V), according to restrictions of operation variables from the grid; and (iii) to propose some management strategies for controlled recharging and the dual function of charging and supplying energy from the electric vehicles to the grid through their storage batteries (V2G). The obtained results show that the moderate incorporation of public charging points does not significantly affect the operability of the network. Furthermore, it is shown that the controlled recharging of electric vehicles manages to reduce the negative impacts on the electrical system under study, allowing higher levels of insertion and/or delaying investments in the electrical infrastructure. An operation mode with energy from the electric vehicles to the grid would allow displacing the peak generation characterized by its high levels of pollution. Nevertheless, this mode of operation makes the system more susceptible to operating within inadmissible ranges.

Probabilistic Load Profile Model for Public Charging Infrastructure to Evaluate the Grid Load

The shift toward electric mobility in Germany is a major component of the German climate protection program. In this context, public charging is growing in importance, especially in high-density urban areas, which causes an additional load on the distribution grid. In order to evaluate this impact and prevent possible overloads, realistic models are required. Methods for implementing such models and their application in the context of grid load are research topics that are only minorly addressed in the literature. This paper aims to demonstrate the entire process chain from the selection of a modelling method to the implementation and application of the model within a case study. Applying a stochastic approach, charging points are modelled via probabilities to determine the start of charging, plug-in duration, and charged energy. Subsequently, load profiles are calculated, integrated into an energy system model and applied in order to analyze the effects of a high density of public charging points on the urban distribution grid. The case study highlights a possible application of the implemented probabilistic load profile model, but also reveals its limitations. The primary results of this paper are the identification and evaluation of relevant criteria for modelling the load profiles of public charging points as well as the demonstration of the model and its comparison to real charging processes. By publishing the determined probabilities and the model for calculating the charging load profiles, a comprehensive tool is provided.

Analysing the Cost-Effectiveness of Charging Stations for Electric Vehicles in the U.K.’s Rural Areas

While U.K. authorities have attempted to tailor measures to boost sales of electric vehicles (EVs) and support citizens through different schemes, the size and geographic coverage of the existing charging network are insufficient, which undermines electromobility promotion. There are 15,853 public charging points installed in the U.K. as of 3 August 2021, and the demands for public EV charging are rising. For rural areas, there is little support from local authorities or private companies. To identify how a charging station can be installed and work, this study researches existing charging stations nationwide. Generally, most Public Charging Stations (PCS) in rural areas have unsatisfactory cost-effectiveness due to their long payback period. This paper presents how many rural PCS are able to afford the cost in the first eight years. Based on the ever-increasing demands of the market, EV producers are switching their business strategies. Meanwhile, the rural areas may become urban with the same definition. When it comes to the analysis of cost-effectiveness, it is possible for the PCS to bring more elements into the calculation. For Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) and Operation Expenditure (OPEX), the unnecessary cost leaves more profit space, like the possibility of unplanned maintenance costs.

Public charging infrastructure and electric vehicles in Norway

We study whether public charging infrastructure drives battery electric vehicle adoption. Our analysis is based on granular, annual information on the location of public charging infrastructure and the battery electric vehicle ownership rate across 356 Norwegian LAU-2 municipalities between 2009 and 2019. We focus on areas in which the first public charging infrastructure was installed in this time period. In these mostly rural areas, the establishment of a first public charging station initiated adoption. We find, on average, an increase of the local electric vehicle ownership rate by 1.5 percentage points or 200% over 5 years. Our results are robust to anticipatory effects. They also remain unaffected from different treatment thresholds: the median number of public chargers in a municipality between 2009 and 2019 or the median density of public charging points per 1000 inhabitants in the same time frame. While we cannot fully rule out reverse effects, we identify public charging infrastructure to serve as a stimulus to the diffusion of battery electric vehicles.

Modeling public charging infrastructure considering points of interest and parking potentials

Abstract. Considering climate change, it is essential to reduce CO2 emissions. The provision of charging infrastructure in public spaces for electromobility – along with the substitution of conventional power generation by renewable energies – can contribute to the energy transition in the transport sector. Scenarios for the spatial distribution of this charging infrastructure can help to exemplify the need for charging points and their impact, for example on power grids. We model two kinds of demand for public charging infrastructure. First, we model the demand for public charging points to compensate for the lack of home charging points, which is derived from a previously developed and published model addressing electric-vehicle ownership (with and without home charging options) in households. Second, and in the focus of the work presented here, is the demand for public charging infrastructure at points of interest (POIs). Their locations are derived from OpenStreetMap (OSM) data and weighted based on an evaluation of movement profiles from the Mobilität in Deutschland survey (MiD, German for “Mobility in Germany”). We combine those two demands with the available parking spaces and generate distributions for possible future charging points. We use a raster-based approach in which all vector data are rasterized and computations are performed on a municipality's full grid. The presented application area is Wiesbaden, and the methodology is generally applicable to municipalities in Germany. The model is compared with three other models or model variants in a correlation comparison in order to determine the influence of certain model assumptions and input data. The identification of potential charging points in public spaces plays an important role in modeling the future energy system – especially the power grid – as the rapid adoption of electric vehicles will shift locations of electrical demand. With our investigation, we would like to present a new method to simulate future public charging point locations and show the influences of different modeling methods.

An exploration of electric-car mobility in Greece: A stakeholders’ perspective

Following the directives set by the European Union, Greece is entering a transition phase towards electromobility. The presence of electric vehicles on the Greek market is currently low relative to other countries. The Greek government has recently established new legislation introducing financial and tax incentives towards electric vehicle purchase for both private owners and companies. This paper investigates the perspectives of a group of stakeholders in response to this government initiative. Findings indicated that the financial and tax incentives set by the Greek government were a good first step towards the promotion of electric vehicles. However, aiming at an increased penetration rate of electric vehicles on the Greek market requires strategic allocation of public charging infrastructure and national coverage to enable electric vehicles to travel within and out of the urban core. Incentives should be also considerate of different socio-economic segments of the population to prevent inequalities and match their preferences. Also, the electricity provider should ensure that the network would be able to withstand the increased electricity demand that the public charging points and electric vehicles would require. Finally, successful transition towards electromobility would require promotion of electric vehicles as an act of environmental consciousness.

Public Charging Infrastructure and Electric Vehicles in Norway

We study whether public charging infrastructure drives battery electric vehicle adoption. Our analysis is based on granular, annual information on the location of public charging infrastructure and the battery electric vehicle ownership rate across 356 Norwegian LAU-2 municipalities between 2009 and 2019. We focus on areas in which the first public charging infrastructure was installed in this time period. In these mostly rural areas, the establishment of a first public charging station initiated adoption. We find, on average, an increase of the local electric vehicle ownership rate by 1.5 percentage points or 200% over 5 years. Our results are robust to anticipatory effects. They also remain unaffected from different treatment thresholds: the median number of public chargers in a municipality between 2009 and 2019 or the median density of public charging points per 1,000 inhabitants in the same time frame. While we cannot fully rule out reverse effects, we identify public charging infrastructure to serve as a stimulus to the diffusion of battery electric vehicles.

Comparative Analysis of National Policies for Electric Vehicle Uptake Using Econometric Models

As electric vehicles (EVs) have been widely discussed as a promising way to mitigate the effect of climate change, various policies have been implemented across the world to promote the uptake of EVs. Policymakers also paid attention to the density of public charging points. In this paper, we examined the impact of policies on EV markets in the post subsidy era with multiple linear regression analysis using panel data on 13 countries from 2015 to 2018. Five of the independent variables showed significantly positive effects on the 1% level in different regression models: fast/slow charger density, mandate, purchasing restriction and waiver. Subsidies showed significance only on 5% level for battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Financial stimulates have experienced a declining marginal effect, whereas a high density of fast chargers has the most significantly positive effect on EV uptake. This paper suggests policymakers can invest more in completing the public infrastructures of EVs, especially on fast charging points.

Future Urban Charging Solutions for Electric Vehicles

The numbers of electric vehicles (EV) will increase as many countries perceive EVs as a solution to reduce the emissions of transportation and therefore incentivize their adoption. However, the deployment of public charging infrastructure is lagging behind that of EVs, which represents a potential barrier to their wide-scale adoption. The objective of this paper is to develop a comprehensive overview of potential EV charging solutions to be deployed in urban areas. Using a micro-Delphi approach, experts from transport, energy and urban planning were consulted and identified 15 realistic options for charging electric vehicles in urban environments by 2035. The solutions range from purely technical to more service oriented. Most of these solutions already exist today, although some remain at a very early stage of deployment. The five most likely options were on-street public charging points, charging at work, fast-charging stations, using building domestic plugs and semi-fast charging in public areas. When combined with the typical mobility and residential profiles, our results show that EV drivers will most likely rely on a mix of solutions, when they have no home chargers. As such, no breakthrough or major shift is expected in charging infrastructures, rather a scale-up of existing solutions. Our analysis concludes that urban charging options will be numerous and no single solution is expected to dominate as users with different EV user profiles will charge at different times and locations.

How much charging infrastructure do electric vehicles need? A review of the evidence and international comparison

Plug-In electric vehicles (PEV) are in an early market phase in almost all markets. Still, the lack of public charging infrastructure is a barrier to PEV adoption. The assessment of future charging infrastructure needs is often based on key figures, mainly the ratio of PEV to public charging points. However, countries differ regarding their framework conditions, e.g. the availability of home charging, and the question of how much public charging infrastructure is needed cannot be answered equally for all countries. Yet, studies analyzing the framework conditions for the medium- to long-term demand for charging infrastructure are rare. Here, we review the existing literature and summarize the evidence for the importance of framework conditions on charging infrastructure needs. Furthermore, we illustrate the literature evidence by comparing the framework conditions for charging infrastructure in different countries based on a comprehensive dataset of framework parameters. We find public charging infrastructure as alternative to home charging is only needed in some densely populated areas. However, framework conditions vary largely among countries. Accordingly, findings from literature for specific countries can only be transferred to other countries to a limited extent.

Electric vehicle adoption in Sweden and the impact of local policy instruments

A transition towards a higher share of electric vehicles has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The adoption rate of electric vehicles in Sweden is however relatively slow and varies substantially across municipalities. This study empirically examines the impact of local policy instruments designed to promote the adoption of electric vehicles. We use panel data between 2010 and 2016 to estimate the effect of local policy instruments on the share of newly registered battery electric vehicles in Swedish municipalities. We find that an increased number of public charging points increases the adoption rate, especially in urban municipalities. The results further suggest that public procurement of battery electric vehicles has the potential to be an effective policy instrument. Finally, we find that by adjusting policy instruments to the specific characteristics of municipalities and making them visible to the public, their effectiveness can be increased.

Battery charging infrastructure as one of the elements of electromobility progress in Poland

It is expected that until 2025 there will be million electric cars (PEV) running on Polish roads [20]. These vehicles are undisputedly an important part of actions being undertaken in order to reach low-emission mobility in the area of road transport, responsible for 70% of GHG emissions from the whole transport sector. Although PEV cars have a number of advantages, they still have minor share in the automotive market, not only in Poland, but all over the world. Limited availability of public charging points still remain one of the key barriers for further progress of electromobility. In this study the authors will present current condition of charging infrastructure in Poland compared to other countries. They will also try to answer the question whether introduction of a number of incentives leads to faster electromobility progress.

Fast charging infrastructure for electric vehicles: Today’s situation and future needs

Potential users of plug-in electric vehicles often ask for public charging facilities before buying vehicles. Furthermore, the speed of public charging is often expected to be similar to conventional refueling. For this reason, research on and political interest in public charging focus more and more on fast charging options with higher power rates, yet estimates for future needs are rare. This paper tries to fill this gap by analyzing current charging behavior from a large charging data set from Sweden and Norway and take the findings to calibrate a queuing model for future fast charging infrastructure needs. We find that the ratio of battery electric vehicles to public fast charging points can be similar to other alternative fuels in the future (close to one fast charging point per 1000 vehicles for high power rates of 150 kW). In addition, the surplus on the electricity prices for payoff is only 0.05–0.15 €/kWh per charging point. However, charging infrastructure needs highly depend on battery sizes and power rates that are both likely to increase in the future.

Quantitative analysis of the public charging-point evolution: A demand-driven spatial modeling approach

The coverage standard of the current publicly accessible charging infrastructure is insufficient and considered as a major obstacle in the introduction to the market of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). Therefore, it is necessary to establish a publicly accessible charging infrastructure that features an appropriate coverage standard. The aim of this study is to support a spatially differentiated and demand-driven infrastructure development that ensures a desired coverage standard. For this purpose, we developed a calculation model which is applied to cumulated PEV sales and the inventory of publicly accessible charging points, in Germany with the spatial resolution of administrative districts. The required public charging-point evolution until 2040 is calculated for a given PEV market diffusion. In 2015, an appropriate coverage standard was achieved in only some regions of Germany; this means that the probability of finding access to a free public charging point at the desired time of charging is at least 90%. When one considers the entire country, however, it becomes clear that an additional 3600 publicly available charging points are needed. By 2040, the provision of approximately 730,000 public charging points could ensure an appropriate coverage standard for an estimated 17.8 million PEVs. The study results show that the rate of public charging-point deployment can decrease once PEV sales increase. The economically feasible operation of public charging infrastructure highly depends on the average utilization rate and it appears to be challenging to reach profitability by only selling the electricity.