Public Agricultural Extension Research Articles

Competencies and training needs of extension agents for educating farmers on genetically engineered crops in Uganda

The purpose of this study was to determine the training needs of extension agents in Uganda to lead successful education programs on genetically engineered (GE) crops. This was a descriptive survey research study conducted online with public agricultural extension agents in the eastern agro-ecological zone of Uganda. This study used Borich’s method to identify training needs. A survey instrument was designed to determine extension agents’ perceived importance and proficiency of 60 competencies organized under the eight Public Issues Education (PIE) framework competency constructs. The survey received 58 usable responses comprising an 83% response rate. All eight PIE competency constructs were perceived by the extension agents to be important. This study identified additional four competencies important for PIE in addition to the eight competencies in the model. Agents’ greatest training needs were creating partnerships and designing GE education programs. The lowest training needs were creating an environment of professionalism and managing conflicts. The findings indicate the importance of training extension agents on how to engage with farmers in new ways to educate them on GE technology. This study provides implications for determining the training needs of extension agents in PIE such as educating farmers on GE technology.

Public Agricultural Extension, Pest and Disease Experience, and Adoption of Improved Wheat Varieties

Improved varieties are considered critical for increasing crop yields worldwide. This study explored the effects of public agricultural extension and pest and disease experience on adoption of improved varieties using survey data on 525 wheat farmers in Anhui Province, China, to which the Heckman sample selection model was applied. The results showed that public agricultural extension had a significant positive relationship with adoption of improved varieties. Demonstration and training, as different forms of agricultural extension, both increased the probability of farmers adopting improved varieties, but only demonstration had a marked effect on degree of adoption. Pest and disease experience increased the probability of adoption of improved varieties by farmers and significantly enhanced the effect of public agricultural extension, but did not affect degree of adoption. Further analysis using an endogenous switching regression model revealed that adoption of improved varieties raised wheat yields by around 337.83 kg/ha. Public agricultural extension should thus be strengthened, especially for farmers with pest and disease experience, and a diversified, well-functioning agricultural extension system should be provided.

Strengthening the accountability of agricultural field agents: a principal-agent perspective

ABSTRACT Purpose To assess the potential of a paper diary for strengthening accountability in public agricultural extension services. Therefore a paper diary called ‘Diary for Agricultural Extension Officers’ was developed and tested in Uganda. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative case study research approach was applied for the development and assessment of the diary. Data were collected using focus group discussions and individual face-to-face interviews. Data analysis was conducted using the content analysis method. Findings Paper diaries can strengthen accountability in public agricultural extension services by enabling alignment of the extension activities of the field agents to the goals of the extension service and to the needs of the beneficiaries, in addition to mitigating information asymmetry about the extension activities. However, the implementation of paper diaries requires sensitization of the beneficiaries on the need for verification and feedback. Practical Implications This study is centred around addressing a practical problem of field agents’ accountability and results have the potential to improve management of public services such as agricultural extension. Moreover, the findings could also be relevant for all types of organizations and service delivery methods. Theoretical implications This study expanded the boundaries of the principal-agent theory by applying it to the accountability of agricultural extension services using paper diaries, which have hitherto not been widely applied. Originality/value This study advances the debates of accountability and coordination of agricultural extension services by assessing the potential of a paper diary as the literature has to date assessed the potential of electronic diaries.

Effect of survey farmers’ knowledge and practices on the yield of sugarcane in Pakistan

Sugarcane (Saccharum interspecific hybrids) yield is greatly affected by different pests in Pakistan. A total of three hundred and thirty-six (336) volunteer sugarcane farmers were interviewed and their fields inspected. Major pests were noted as; rat (Bandicota bengalensis), termites (Heterotermes indicola), borer (Bissetia steniellus), and leafhopper (Pyrilla perpusilla). These occurred in single and combined status in sugarcane fields. Most (147/336) of the sugarcane farmers mentioned four types of pests in their fields. In general 200/336 of the sugarcane farmers had applied pesticides in single and combined forms in their fields, they achieved a maximum average yield of 80 t ha−1. The number of farmers who applied malathion was 36/336. They achieved an average yield of 105.5 kg ha−1. Only one sugarcane farmer applied regent and furadon in combined form and obtained an average yield of 92.6 kg ha−1 in their field. Linear regression showed a significant relationship between average sugarcane yield and pest infestation (R2 = 0.9689) as well as pesticide application (R2 = 0.9128) in the area investigated. In total 299 out of the 336 sugarcane farmers were small size landholders up to 2 ha. A limited number (35/336) of the farmers visited the public agricultural extension department for information and application techniques of pesticides against pests. It will be fruitful if the public and private agricultural extension departments start awareness programmes on pest infestation among sugarcane farmers and train them to practice recommended pesticide applications in their sugarcane fields.

Effect of Climate Smart Agriculture Innovations on Climate Resilience among Smallholder Farmers: Empirical Evidence from the Choke Mountain Watershed of the Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia

Smallholder farmers’ capacities need to be strengthened to enable them to better withstand the upcoming impacts of climate change; these capacities not only include the responsive capacity, but also consider innovation, learning, and anticipation to be prepared for the projected impacts of a changing climate on the agriculture system. The objective of this paper is to examine the impact of climate smart agriculture (CSA) innovations on building climate resilience capacity in smallholder agriculture systems. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted among a multi-stage sample of 424 smallholder farmers selected from five agroecosystems of the Upper Blue Nile Highlands in Ethiopia. The study used an endogenous switching regression (ESR) model to examine the impact of CSA innovations on building climate resilience capacity among smallholder farmers. The true average adoption effects of climate resilience capacity under actual and counterfactual conditions showed that different CSA innovations have different effects on the climate resilience capacity of households. Except for SWC adopters, all CSA innovations significantly increased the climate resilience capacity of households. However, improved variety, crop residue management, and SWC have more profound effects on the non-adopters than adopters, =if non-adopters had adopted these CSA innovations. Strong absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities through strong disaster and early warning systems, climate-resilient infrastructure, a strong public agricultural extension system, a strong informal safety net, and social networks build a climate-resilient agriculture system among smallholder farmers. Thus, scaling up of CSA innovations may expand the benefit of CSA innovation on building the climate resilience capacities of households. Thus, strong risk management, disaster mitigation and early warning systems, adaptive strategies, information and training, informal safety nets, social networks, and infrastructure use may build the climate resilience capacity of smallholder farmers by facilitating the adoption of CSA innovation. Therefore, policies that strengthen good governance, social cohesion, disaster communication and early warning systems, input supply of drought-resistant varieties, climate smart extension service, and climate-resilient infrastructure are necessary.

The role of public agricultural extension services in driving fertilizer use in rice production in China

Fertilizer overuse causes serious environmental degradation, and it is important to identify the influencing factors of fertilizer use. To feed the largest population worldwide, China has adopted a productivity-led agricultural policy regime and established the largest public agricultural extension system. Given that China is the largest consumer of fertilizers, understanding the role of public agricultural extension services (PAES) in the context of the productivity-led agricultural policy regime can provide a new insight for policy-makers to take measures to reduce fertilizer use. Using survey data of 1002 rice farmers in 2018, this study employs the treatment-effect model to examine the effect of PAES adoption on fertilizer use and its heterogeneity. The results show that about 22% of rice farmers adopt PAES. After addressing the endogeneity issue, farmers' PAES adoption raises total fertilizer use, nitrogen fertilizer use and fertilizer expenditure in rice production by 242.96 kg/ha, 109.37 kg/ha and 1400 Chinese yuan per hectare (CNY/ha), respectively. The effects of PAES adoption on fertilizer use are heterogeneous in different provinces. These results indicate that moves should be directed towards altering the productivity-led agricultural policy regime, reinforcing the development of socialization agricultural service system, and altering the contents and approaches of agricultural extension services.

Farmer’s perceptions of effectiveness of public agricultural extension services in South Africa: an exploratory analysis of associated factors

AbstractBackgroundEffective public extension and advisory services have the potential to improve agricultural productivity; net farm income; and food security amongst resource-poor farmers. However, studies conducted to measure the effectiveness of extension and advisory services, offered by the Government of South Africa, have focused on the methods used, instead of the guiding principles, such as demand-driven services; equity; prioritization of farmer’s needs; and social and human capital development. The aim of this research paper was to determine farmers’ perceptions regarding the effectiveness of public extension and advisory services and associated factors. Perceptions of the effectiveness were measured using sixteen variables. A group of 442 farmers, in the Gauteng province, receiving government agricultural extension and advisory services, were randomly selected to participate in the study. Using a semi-structured survey instrument, primary data was collected through physical interviews and then analysed using computer software.ResultsThe study found that public extension and advisory services in Gauteng were perceived as ineffective. Three socio-demographic factors (education level, age and farm/plot size) significantly influenced farmer’s perceptions towards public extension and advisory services. Moreover, the Principle Axis Factoring (PAF) results indicated that there were three underlying factors of the perceived effectiveness of public extension services, namely: relevance and good quality services; provision of information on improving agricultural production; and availability of the technologies required by farmers.ConclusionsLarge-scale farmers perceived public extension services to be less effective. The exploratory factor analysis extracted three underlying factors which accounted for 81.81% of the variance of the perceived effectiveness of public extension services. Farmers recommended that public extension and advisory services should be of good quality; relevant; and should improve agricultural production to be considered as effective by the farmers. Moreover, provision of extension and advisory services should be determined by farm/plot size.

Effect of agricultural extension services in the post-reform era since the mid-2000s on pesticide use in China: evidence from rice production

ABSTRACT Pesticide overuse has resulted in serious ecological problems. Agricultural extension services play a key role in influencing farmers’ pesticide use. China has the world's largest public agricultural extension system, which has experienced a twisting path of reforms over the past four decades. However, there is little empirical evidence regarding the effects of agricultural extension services in the post-reform era since the mid-2000s. This study examines the effect of agricultural extension services in the post-reform era on pesticide use in China, using survey data of 1963 rice farmers in 2016 and 2018. Our results indicate that only 22.5% of surveyed farmers adopted agricultural extension services. After addressing the self-selectivity issue, the treatment effects model revealed that agricultural extension services in the post-reform era resulted in a 3.01 kg/ha reduction in total pesticide use, a 0.86 kg/ha reduction in application rate of active ingredients, and a 250 CNY/ha reduction in pesticide expenditure related to rice production. Our findings provide sound evidence that agricultural extension services in the post-reform era can result in a reduction in pesticide use for rice production. More effective efforts should be made to reinforce the provision of agricultural extension services and encourage farmers to adopt these services.

Personalized digital extension services and agricultural performance: Evidence from smallholder farmers in India.

Productivity growth in smallholder agriculture is an important driver of rural economic development and poverty reduction. However, smallholder farmers often have limited access to information, which can be a serious constraint for increasing productivity. One potential mechanism to reduce information constraints is the public agricultural extension service, but its effectiveness has often been low in the past. Digital technologies could enhance the effectiveness of extension by reducing outreach costs and helping to better tailor the information to farmers’ individual needs and conditions. Using primary data from India, this study analyses the association between digital extension services and smallholder agricultural performance. The digital extension services that some of the farmers use provide personalized information on the types of crops to grow, the types and quantities of inputs to use, and other methods of cultivation. Problems of selection bias in the impact evaluation are reduced through propensity score matching (PSM) combined with estimates of farmers’ willingness to pay for digital extension. Results show that use of personalized digital extension services is positively and significantly associated with input intensity, production diversity, crop productivity, and crop income.

Impact of public research and development and extension on agricultural productivity in China from 1990 to 2013

Agricultural research and extension are two main policy tools that governments can use to generate agricultural growth and transformation. China has made major investments in agricultural research and extension such that it achieved the largest research and extension systems worldwide. This study examined the contribution of public agricultural research and extension to provincial agricultural productivity in China from 1990 to 2013 and estimated the social rate of return on these investments. Employing different lag distribution structures (e.g., trapezoid, gamma, and polynomial) for public agricultural research and extension in the regression analyses, this study found that public agricultural research and development, public extension, and farmers' education have made major contributions to agricultural productivity growth in China. On average, the real rate of return to public investment in agricultural research and development was around 50%, and agricultural extension was 29%. Returns to public research ranged from 24% to 76% and the extension, from 11% to 52% across different provinces.

Superweed amaranth: metaphor and the power of a threatening discourse

This paper analyses the use of metaphor in discourses around the “superweed” Palmer amaranth. Most weed scientists associated with the US public agricultural extension system dismiss the term superweed. However, together with the media, they indirectly encourage aggressive control practices by actively diffusing the framing of herbicide resistant Palmer amaranth as an existential threat that should be eradicated at any cost. We use argumentative discourse analysis to better understand this process. We analyze a corpus consisting of reports, policy briefs, and press releases produced by state extension services, as well as articles from professional and popular magazines and newspapers quoting extension specialists and/or public sector weed scientists or agronomists. We show how the superweed discourse is powered by negative metaphors, and legitimizes aggressive steps to eradicate the weed. This discourse reinforces the farmers’ techno-optimism master frame, contributes to deskilling of farmers and sidelines ethical concerns.

Agricultural extension agents’ education and turnover intentions in public extension services in Ethiopia

Agricultural extension agents provide informal education to equip farmers with new knowledge and skills. They play critical roles for the transfer of agricultural knowledge, technologies, and innovations. However, most of them dissatisfied and intend to find other employment in Ethiopia. Thus, this study was conducted to examine agricultural extension agents’ education, perceptions towards job satisfaction, and turnover intention in public agricultural extension services in Ethiopia. The sample frame was the list of all first, second, and third-year mid-career students joined Haramaya University to upgrade their educational qualification. Total 123 extension agents were involved in the study. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results revealed that about 89.40% of extension agents acquired new knowledge, skills, practices, and attitudinal change during attending their education at Haramaya University. Results also showed that extension agents were dissatisfied with their current job and organization in terms of payment, promotion, benefits, and recognition. Furthermore, survey results indicate that about 68.3% of extension agents intended to leave their current position and extension organization after completing a Bachelor of Science degree. Therefore, government, private sectors and other stakeholders who work in extension organizations should work on the education and training programs, work motivation, and job satisfaction of agricultural extension agents by designing various incentive packages to increase their work motivation and reduce turnover intentions.

Does it matter who gives information? The impact of information sources on farmers’ pesticide use in China

The timely delivery of scientific information regarding pesticide use to farmers is essential to address negative externalities. Farmers have four information sources regarding pesticide use in China: public agricultural extension agents (PAEAs), pesticide sellers, peer farmers, and farmers’ own experience. A better understanding of which information source is the most effective in reducing pesticide use would be a principal step toward designing policy strategies for sustainable agricultural production. In this study, we examine the relative effectiveness of each information source on farmers’ pesticide use, based on nationally representative data from 603 rice farmers in seven major rice-producing provinces in China. We adopt a multinomial endogenous switching regression model to correct for selection bias due to observed and unobserved factors. Results show that compared with farmers’ own experience, PAEAs significantly increase farmers’ pesticide expenditure by 8.7 %, while pesticide sellers and peer farmers significantly decrease farmers’ pesticide expenditure by 18.5 % and 10.1 % respectively, with the largest reduction coming from pesticide sellers. Discouraging PAEAs’ commercial activities, working with pesticide sellers, and using peer farmers as social multipliers to disseminate knowledge may be effective ways to develop education programs that aim to reduce pesticide use.

Sustainable farmer-to-farmer extension – the experiences of private service providers in Zambia

ABSTRACT To improve and sustain farm productivity, farmers require information on inputs, postharvest management and markets, and exposure to new technologies and best practices. Traditionally public agricultural extension agents are the knowledge brokers for farmers. However, government extension has received much criticism due to limited reach and relevance, and poor resourcing. This paper examines the use of a private extension approach that is supporting and educating farmers in groups in two districts of Zambia through farmer-to-farmer extension. This paper shares the experiences and perspectives of farmers who provide the extension services. In doing so, it highlights the tensions within the role of farmers as private service providers and three emergent dilemmas for sustainability of the approach.

Agricultural extension agents’ education and turnover intentions in public extension services in Ethiopia

Agricultural extension agents provide informal education to equip farmers with new knowledge and skills. They play critical roles for the transfer of agricultural knowledge, technologies, and innovations. However, most of them dissatisfied and intend to find other employment in Ethiopia. Thus, this study was conducted to examine agricultural extension agents’ education, perceptions towards job satisfaction, and turnover intention in public agricultural extension services in Ethiopia. The sample frame was the list of all first, second, and third-year mid-career students joined Haramaya University to upgrade their educational qualification. Total 123 extension agents were involved in the study. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results revealed that about 89.40% of extension agents acquired new knowledge, skills, practices, and attitudinal change during attending their education at Haramaya University. Results also showed that extension agents were dissatisfied with their current job and organization in terms of payment, promotion, benefits, and recognition. Furthermore, survey results indicate that about 68.3% of extension agents intended to leave their current position and extension organization after completing a Bachelor of Science degree. Therefore, government, private sectors and other stakeholders who work in extension organizations should work on the education and training programs, work motivation, and job satisfaction of agricultural extension agents by designing various incentive packages to increase their work motivation and reduce turnover intentions.

Farmers’, Farm Characteristics’ and Use of Public Agricultural Extension Support across Time in Selected Municipalities of Limpopo Province, South Africa

ABSTRACT The paper compares data on subsistence grain producers’ socio-economic, farm characteristics, and their use of public extension support for farm management across time and in various municipalities of Limpopo province, South Africa. A cross-sectional survey design was used to collect the data in eight selected local municipalities by means of multi-stage sampling. Data were analysed by means of descriptive statistics. Findings across time periods (2014 and 2017) and aggregated for all the different local municipalities investigated were similar regarding respondents’ socio-economic and farm characteristics as well as use of public extension support for farm management. These evidence-based findings augur well for the development of uniform and appropriate strategies for the local municipalities to improve public extension support so that producers can receive more extension farm visits and, therefore, more farm management information. Such support will help producers to improve their farming operations and invariably, their productivity and household food security.

Extension Agents’ Perception on Suitability of Climate Change Information Disseminated to Smallholder Farmers

This study examined gaps in climate information within public agricultural extension in Limpopo Province, South Africa. It assessed extension officers’ climate change perceptions, knowledge and climate education. Lastly, the study examined the extension approaches for overall suitability of climate information disseminated to rural smallholder farmers. The results indicated that participants were predominately male, with tertiary education. Education levels had an influence on exposure to climate education and extension approaches in disseminating agricultural information to farmers. There is a need to retool extension officers in climate change extension work, integrating indigenous knowledge to increase suitability and acceptability of information by smallholder farmers.

Can public universities play a role in fostering seed sovereignty?

Across Canada and the United States, public universities were founded with a mission to contribute to broad societal well-being. Yet, the capacity of public research institutions to develop and disseminate flexible and accessible tools for resilient agriculture has been challenged in recent decades. The role of universities in advancing extractive, rather than regenerative, economies has been amplified by the privatization of public agricultural research and extension of knowledge to farmers, particularly in plant breeding and plant genetics. In this article, we examine the history of public research for seed systems in North America through a “seed regimes” framework, arguing that a narrow focus on commercialization of public research has exacerbated inequalities inherent in the founding structure of public agricultural research, including the displacement of Indigenous land and seed relations. We then discuss how community organizations are challenging the enclosure of seed through seed sovereignty organizing and freelance plant breeding, in some cases through the development of community–university partnerships based on the principles of the cocreation of knowledge. We conclude by offering a reimagined public seed research agenda that focuses on strengthening links between public research and grassroots seed movements, as an opportunity to build more resilient seed and food systems.

Factors affecting climate change coping strategies used by smallholder farmers under root crop farming systems in derived savannah ecology zone of Nigeria

The study analyzes factors affecting climate change coping strategies and constraints experienced by smallholder farmers under root crop (cassava and yam) farming systems in derived savannah ecological zone of Nigeria. The study used data collected from 400 farmers selected through a multistage random sampling technique from two States, Ebonyi and Enugu States, in the zone. The factors affecting the use of some climate change coping strategies were estimated using multivariate probit regression. We isolated factors that constrain farmers from coping with changes in climate using exploratory factor analysis. The findings revealed that the majority (98%) of the smallholder farmers indicated that delay in the onset of rains, too much rainfall (70%), higher temperatures (65%), and erratic rainfall patterns (43%) were the main types of climate change they experienced. The key strategies the farmers applied in coping with climate change are buying food (45%), starting the use of sustainable land management practices (43%), planting of early maturing crops (36%), planting trees (32%), starting non-farm activity (30%), and eating less food (30%). The multivariate probit regression result indicated that some variables influenced the likelihood of simultaneous adoption of the coping strategies. For example, providing climate change information to cassava and yam farmers through extension agents significantly increases the likelihood of engaging in climate-smart practices, namely, planting early-maturing crop varieties and tree planting. We also found that farmers' experiences with climate change variables and outcomes significantly influence the coping strategies they choose. For example, a decline in crop yield was positively and significantly associated with buying food, planting early-maturing varieties, starting a non-farm activity, and eating less as coping strategies. Constraints the farmers faced in coping with climate change were grouped as cultural impediments, weak knowledge/information, ineffective agricultural extension services, and weak policy and institutions. The study recommends, among others, strengthening of public agricultural extension services, provision of climate services to farmers, implementing policies to guaranty food security and enhancing the human capital of the farm households to reduce their vulnerability to climate change.

E-diary: a digital tool for strengthening accountability in agricultural extension

ABSTRACT The study aimed to assess the potential of smartphone applications for strengthening accountability in public agricultural extension services. Therefore, a smartphone application called ‘e-diary’ was developed and tested in Uganda. A Design Science Research approach was used for the development and assessment of the e-diary. Individual face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions were used for data collection. Data analysis was conducted using the content analysis method. The findings indicate that smartphone applications have the potential to strengthen accountability in the public agricultural extension services by enabling remote supervision in real-time, which reduces the costs and time of supervision. However, the study also indicates that the successful implementation of such tools requires incentives such as awards of recognition. These findings contribute to the understanding of the potential role of ICTs in strengthening the management of public services (such as agricultural extension) in developing economies.