PsyD Programs Research Articles

Clinical Psychology Graduate Programs: Falling Short in Cultural Humility Training.

Despite requirements by the American Psychological Association and the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System regarding training and education in cultural humility, questions remain regarding the presence and quality of the training in clinical psychology PhD and PsyD programs. This is a critical issue as inadequate training in diversity, cultural humility, and multiculturalism has substantial downstream effects on care for clients of color and may contribute to racial disparities and inequities in access to mental health services. We seek to explicitly evaluate key features of the conceptual model thought to improve the provision of mental health services for clients facing oppression and marginalization which includes perceptions of clinical psychology graduate programs' training in and assessment of cultural humility. We also assess self-efficacy related to the application of cultural humility as well as actual practice of actions associated with cultural humility. Each of these domains are evaluated among a sample of 300 graduate students and faculty, clinical supervisors, and/or directors of clinical training (DCTs) and differences across position and race of participants were tested. Study findings highlight significant gaps between what trainees need to develop cultural humility and what they may actually be receiving from their respective programs. While findings suggest that there is still a lot of work to be done, understanding the state of the field with regards to clinical training in cultural humility is an important first step towards change.

The hidden curriculum of gatekeeping: Dismissal experiences of health service psychology trainees.

Health service psychology (HSP) programs, encompassing clinical, counseling, and school psychology, play a pivotal role in shaping the U.S. health care workforce. Practicum and internship sites are critical gatekeepers within this training. However, there is limited empirical evidence available regarding the prevalence of clinical dismissal and its consequences for affected trainees. To bridge these gaps in our understanding of clinical dismissal during HSP training, Study 1 conducted an analysis of a quantitative survey involving training directors (N = 123) from HSP academic programs. The results revealed that 28% of programs reported at least one trainee having been dismissed from a practicum or internship site within the past seven years, with an overrepresentation of racial minority and international trainees. In addition, PsyD programs (56%) exhibited a significantly higher likelihood of having dismissed trainees compared to PhD programs (23%) over the same period. In Study 2, qualitative interview data were collected from ten trainees who had experienced dismissal during their HSP training. Using the Consensual Qualitative Research method, we identified six distinct domains, each comprising unique categories and subcategories: Antecedents to dismissal, reasons for dismissal, process of dismissal, chain reactions, trainee impact, and recommendations. Taken together, this mixed-method study highlights that clinical dismissal is not an uncommon occurrence in HSP training and raises significant concerns about the current implementation process. We illuminate structural issues and offer recommendations to improve the process of clinical dismissal within the HSP field. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Trauma-informed care? Identifying training deficits in accredited doctoral programs.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the number of accredited doctoral programs in clinical psychology that require a course in trauma-informed theory and intervention in their curriculum. Clinical psychology programs accredited by the American Psychological Association were surveyed to determine their requirement for a course related to trauma-informed care. Program information was initially reviewed online and in the absence of clear indication within their program websites, survey questions were sent to the program Chair and/or Directors of Clinical Training. Data were obtained from 193 of the 254 APA-accredited programs included in this survey process. Only nine (5%) require a course related to trauma-informed care. Of these, five were PhD programs and four were PsyD programs. This equates to 202 (8%) of graduating doctoral students having been required to take a course related to trauma-informed care. Trauma exposure is common and a major factor to be considered in the development of psychological disorders and overall physical and emotional wellbeing. As a result, clinical psychologists should enter the field with a foundation in understanding the impact and treatment of trauma exposure. However, only a minority of graduating doctoral students have been required to take a course related to this topic in their graduate curriculum. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

PsyD Programs in Counseling Psychology: Current Status and Future Directions

This article depicts the unique integration of science and practice found in Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) programs. To dispel myths and provide accurate information about the counseling psychology PsyD degree, survey and interview data from all nine American Psychological Association (APA)–accredited counseling psychology PsyD programs are presented. We argue that embracing PsyD programs within a unified counseling psychology training structure and value system has advantages for the field, including providing a mechanism to foster counseling psychology’s reach and social justice mission. Given the newly-articulated professional competencies of the APA Standards of Accreditation, we also suggest that maintaining counseling psychology training consistency across both Doctor of Philosophy and PsyD programs has the potential to better meet counseling psychologist career trajectories and workforce needs.

Adlerian Psychotherapy: A Resource for Practitioners and Students

Adlerian Psychotherapy:A Resource for Practitioners and Students Leigh Johnson-Migalski (bio) and David Tuan Vo (bio) Adlerian Psychotherapy. (2017). J. Carlson & M. Englar-Carlson (Eds.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN: 9781433826597. $21.20 (paperback). I (LJM) am in the privileged and uncomfortable position of reviewing Adlerian Psychotherapy (2017) by Carlson and Englar-Carlson. An excellent resource, it accomplished the authors' goal to provide "a comprehensive review of modern Adlerian psychotherapy" (p. 9). Shortly after the book was released, Dr. Jon Carlson passed away—thus, my ambivalence about how to critique this work. Following the structure of the other APA books in the Theories of Psychotherapy series, the seven chapters cover history, basic theory, two in-depth client conceptualizations (including lifestyle summaries) and many key Adlerian interventions to demonstrate the therapy process. The evaluation chapter summarizes research and evidence-based practice. In one of the final chapters, the authors solicited feedback from Adlerian experts to suggest future theory and practice development. Readers will have access to one version of a key Adlerian intervention, the Lifestyle Questionnaire Inventory in the appendix, as well as a glossary of key terms and suggested readings. The authors could have connected many of the tactics listed more routinely with the specific case conceptualizations. At times, the authors gave other clinical examples in describing these interventions to the reader but failed to associate the strategies to the fully developed case conceptualizations. But what does the future practitioner think? Since Jon spent his life mentoring students and Matt currently inspires the next generation, here is a student's perspective of this book and the previous APA published book, Adlerian Therapy: Theory and Practice (Carlson, Watts, & Maniacci, 2006). [End Page 89] ________ I (DV) think Adlerian Psychotherapy provided an accessible introductory foundation. By consistently weaving in ideas and research developed and furthered by other Adlerians, there is a notion of extending ourselves beyond Adler which impressed me. There was a transparency and realness that I have not often experienced in foundational psychology books. The authors demonstrated a key Adlerian tenet of encouragement by critiquing the theory's shortcomings and what can be done by students to improve it. The organization of this book provides a nice progressive flow for new learners. It's direct, to the point, and supported by up-to-date research. I connected with the case examples, the strong cultural considerations and applications, and the list of resources. I was left with some questions, though: How do Adlerians view and treat specific types of psychopathology? How do Adlerians compensate given the need for more evidence-based research? Why does this glossary not have more important Adlerian terms like teleology or Weldbilt? Perhaps one book can't do it all, but I want more case studies of different modalities. Last, what about the legacies of Dreikurs and Mosak? I found Carlson, Watts, and Maniacci's 2006 work to be more technical and naturally required the reader to have a fundamental and rudimentary knowledge of psychology and psychotherapy. Without this knowledge, there may be slight difficulty with synthesizing and conceptualizing Adlerian theory into contemporary practice as well as with multiple different therapy modalities. Carlson and Englar-Carlson's (2017) book is straightforward, succinct, and provides the fundamental blueprint in which it defines Adlerian therapy, its philosophies, and techniques. Meanwhile Carlson, Watts, and Maniacci's (2006) work elevates Adlerian theory to how a clinician can effectively apply it to their existing clients. Nonetheless, both are fine works, and I would recommend reading Carlson and Englar-Carlson's (2017) book first to learn the basics and then to Carlson, Watts, and Maniacci's (2006) for the next steps of Adlerian psychotherapeutic practice. [End Page 90] Leigh Johnson-Migalski Leigh Johnson-Migalski (lmigalski@adler.edu)is a licensed clinical psychologist and associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Adler University, where she coordinates the Advanced Adlerian Psychotherapy Emphasis. She specializes in Individual Psychology, mood disorders, anxiety, diversity, and women's issues. David Tuan Vo David Tuan Vo (dvo@adler.edu) is a doctoral student in the clinical psychology PsyD program at Adler University. He aims to incorporate Adlerian psychotherapy in a primary care setting. As a scholar of...

Preparing for Graduate-Level Training in Professional Psychology

In the present study, faculty who teach in clinical and counseling doctor of philosophy (PhD) or doctor of psychology (PsyD) programs completed surveys regarding preferences for prospective student preparations to graduate programs. Faculty expectations of minimum and ideal undergraduate training were highest for scientific methods, though expectations systematically varied among clinical PhD, counseling PhD, and clinical PsyD programs. Faculty preferences for applicants’ research and clinical “fit” within the program in which they are applying, as well as general interpersonal skills and intellect, also emerged as important admissions factors. These results describe the desirable undergraduate preparations and qualities of applicants for advanced study in clinical and counseling psychology. The findings have implications for prospective graduate students, faculty who train and mentor undergraduates, and faculty who serve on admissions committees.

A developmental lag in the evolution of Doctor of Psychology programs.

In 1973, the American Psychological Association (APA) sponsored the Conference on Levels and Patterns of Training. Conference members concluded that the education and training for the practice of psychology is different than for research and recommended that when emphasis is on preparing students for providing clinical services, the Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree should be awarded. Faculty information for APA-accredited PsyD programs was reviewed, as well as recruitment advertisements for PsyD faculty members. Overall, 21.0% of the faculties possess PsyD degrees, 76.2% possess PhD degrees, and 2.8% possess another degree. Thus, 40 years after recognition of the practice-oriented PsyD degree, academic faculties for PsyD programs are dominated by members with the PhD degree. Additionally, job ads for PsyD faculty positions are focused on research-oriented criteria; more practiceoriented criteria are mentioned rarely. We argue that in a mature profession, members assume responsibility for educating the students who will inherit positions within that profession. The data indicate that PsyD programs did not evolve in this manner. Instead, a developmental lag occurred and vestigial research-oriented program traits continued to influence the hiring criteria for PsyD program faculty. This may have deleterious implications, including potentially undermining PsyD students’ nascent professional identity, stifling an academic role as a vocational opportunity for PsyD graduates, and blurring distinctions between the degrees. Recommendations for undoing the lag are provided.

Of Course

Students often inquire about which psychology courses to complete in preparation for graduate school. This study provides data that enable students and their advisors to make research-informed decisions. We surveyed the directors of the 304 American Psychological Association-accredited doctoral programs in clinical and counseling psychology (97% response rate) regarding prerequisites for doctoral study: the psychology courses, number of psychology credits, undergraduate psychology major, or some combination thereof. About 20% of the doctoral programs required the psychology major for entry, and 8% of the doctoral programs (virtually all in counseling psychology) required a master’s degree. The remaining doctoral programs required either specific courses or specific courses and a minimum number of credits. In clinical psychology, PsyD programs were far more likely to require abnormal psychology, personality, and psychological testing as prerequisites, whereas PhD programs were more likely to require a laboratory course and research experience.

Training Asian Female Students in Community Mental Health: Reflection on our Multiple Identities as Supervisors

This article is a compilation of personal narratives and self-reflections by supervisors affiliated with the Community Behavioral Health Clinical/Research Training Practicum (CRTP) at Fu Yau Project, collaboration between California School of Professional Psychology PsyD Program in San Francisco, and Richmond Area Multi-Services, Inc. (RAMS). As female psychologists of color, authors reflected on what has shaped us as clinicians and supervisors, and in turn, has influenced the way they train and supervise Asian female trainees in the context of community mental health. Authors each took turns to share our personal and professional experience, followed by commentary and training implications.

Future Directions for the Study and Application of Religion, Spirituality, and Trauma Research

A year ago at the international meeting of the Christian Association for Psychological Studies, I (Walker) stood in a symposium being chaired by Aten and asked if the church was really ready to respond to issues of child abuse, domestic violence, and in supporting survivors of wars or disasters. A year later, not much has changed with respect to the current state of research, training, and practice in religion, spirituality, and trauma among Christian practitioners. However, seeing the work that has been done in this special issue gives us cause for hope. In concluding the special issue, we topically review the issues that were raised by authors throughout this volume, and present our reflections on the state of research and practice in each area, with some suggestions for future research, training, and practice. In doing so, we will discuss child abuse prevention and treatment, intimate partner violence, responding to survivors of natural disasters, and integrative approaches to trauma treatment. Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment In presenting their call for more effective prevention and treatment of child abuse in the church, Vieth and his colleagues highlight several important issues for the Christian community to consider. First, Vieth provided a number of practical suggestions for preventing child abuse in churches and Christian organizations. We appreciate the thoughtfulness and practical nature of these policies, but question the degree to which they are currently being implemented in churches around the country. As practitioners who have treated courageous survivors of child abuse, we cannot emphasize enough the urgency with which we undertake the call to help churches prevent the abuse of children in their care. Collaboration with churches in implementing the protection policies that Vieth recommends is sorely needed. Along with that, as Vieth suggested in his article, training for clergy in responding to survivors of abuse is also needed. We are encouraged by Vieth's development of the When Faith Hurts Curriculum, and look forward to seeing its dissemination among clergy. As psychotherapists, we also highlight the need for Christian counseling and psychotherapy training programs to comprehensively consider child abuse treatment in their training, both in the curriculum and in providing opportunities to receive clinical supervision of treatment with survivors. One of us (Walker) directs the Child Trauma Institute in the PsyD program at Regent University. The Child Trauma Institute (CTI) aims to become an exemplar for research, training, and practice in this area. Students in the PsyD program at Regent have an opportunity to take a course entitled the Psychology of Trauma and Crisis, during which they receive training in Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy (TF-CBT; Cohen, Mannarino, & Deblinger, 2006) as well as Spiritually Oriented Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy (SO-TF-CBT; Walker, Reese, Hughes, & Troskie, 2010). As part of the course, students are also taught to assess and comprehensively treat complex trauma among children and adults using evidence based, best practice assessment and treatment methods (e.g., Courtois & Ford, 2009). In addition to learning other treatments for adults, students are also taught Eliana Gil's play therapy methods for treating abuse (Gil, 2006). A primary emphasis in the course is on reading, then seeing therapeutic models of the various approaches, followed by opportunities for practice in the form of role-plays. Students participating in the Child Trauma Institute also have the chance to participate in clinical trials of SO-TF-CBT and, as a result, to receive clinical supervision of child abuse cases. To date, no research has been conducted on the comprehensiveness of training for child abuse and other forms of trauma among Christian counseling and psychology programs. However, we suspect that training may he lagging behind our secular counterparts in this area among most programs. …

Undergraduate Psychology Courses Preferred by Graduate Programs

Information about the undergraduate psychology courses preferred by graduate programs is useful for a number of purposes, including (a) advising psychology majors who are interested in graduate school, (b) undergraduate curriculum planning, and (c) examining whether graduate programs’ preferences reflect national guidelines for the undergraduate psychology curriculum. The authors examined the undergraduate course preferences of U.S. psychology graduate programs ( N = 548). Among Clinical/Counseling (C/C) programs, PsyD programs’ course preferences were more likely than those of master’s and PhD programs to reflect national undergraduate curriculum guidelines. Differences also emerged among various types of training (e.g., C/C vs. Educational/School), and these are important for advisors and students to understand.

Student Ratings of Selection Factors for PsyD Programs

To explore which factors doctor of psychology (PsyD) students feel are important to consider when selecting a PsyD program. This article analyzes the survey responses of 394 enrolled PsyD students and 17 directors of clinical training (DCTs), in which the respondents rated the importance of 18 factors in program selection to understand what qualities PsyD students and DCTs value in a PsyD program. Students were also asked to assess how their program fared on the same 18 dimensions. Results indicated that participants rated the program's structure, tone, and reputed quality of training as the most important factors in program selection (M's of 4.13 to 4.54 on a 5-point scale). Additionally, students rated their current program as high in quality on the same factors that they felt were most important in program selection (r's ranging from .15 to .37). PsyD students rated a program's structure, tone, and reputation as particularly important factors to consider in selecting a program. Students' quality ratings were used to determine the top 5 programs for each of the factors assessed in the study.

Unique Roles for Students in Practitioner-Focused Doctoral Programs: Mentoring Practices for an Evolving Landscape

Studies suggest that training that culminates in the doctor of psychology (PsyD) degree is characterized by heterogeneity. However, elements of most of these practitioner-focused doctoral programs (e.g., larger class sizes, shorter periods of training, less funding for students), as well as the widely varying professional outcomes that they lead to, offer unique challenges and opportunities regarding mentoring. This article aims to (a) trace the development and current status of controversies surrounding the PsyD model; (b) determine the unique roles in which graduates of well-designed and scientifically grounded PsyD programs may be equipped to serve; and (c) drawing on the (limited) extant literature, offer recommendations for mentoring and other elements of training for these practitioner-focused programs. Finally, we offer suggestions for future empirical studies to shed light on the relative value of various training practices.

Predoctoral prescriptive authority curricula: A training option

The purpose of the current article is to encourage discussion among stakeholders about the viability and benefits of predoctoral prescriptive authority (RxP) training. The existing APA model curriculum for RxP training requires that such training is postdoctoral. However, predoctoral models are potentially viable and offer several distinct advantages: reducing the time and financial costs of training, attracting more applicants with a biopsychosocial orientation, and, as more individuals complete this training, enlarging the constituency for state prescriptive authority initiatives. Several possible predoctoral model curricula including the incorporation of a postdoctoral master's degree in clinical psychopharmacology are described within existing APA PhD program requirements, with suggested accommodations for PsyD programs. These are offered as alternatives to, rather than as replacements for, postdoctoral training for RxP.

Predictors of doctoral student success in professional psychology: characteristics of students, programs, and universities

In the face of the rising number of doctoral recipients in professional psychology, many have voiced concerns about the quality of nontraditional training programs. Past research suggests that, on a variety of outcomes, graduates from clinical PhD programs outperform graduates from clinical PsyD and, to a lesser extent, counseling PhD programs. We examine an aggregate archival dataset to determine whether student or university characteristics account for the differences in outcomes among programs. The data show meaningful differences in the outcomes of clinical PhD, PsyD, and counseling PhD programs. Furthermore, graduates from research-intensive universities perform better on the psychology licensure exam and are more likely to become American Board of Professional Psychology diplomates. The available data support the notion that the ability to conduct research is an essential component of graduate education. In this light, PsyD programs represent a unique opportunity to train students in the types of evaluation and outcomes assessments used by practicing psychologists. We discuss implications for graduate-level training in professional psychology.

Getting in and getting money: A comparative analysis of admission standards, acceptance rates, and financial assistance across the research–practice continuum in clinical psychology programs.

The diversification and proliferation of doctoral programs in clinical psychology call for their periodic comparative analysis to inform prospective applicants, their advisors, and the entire field. The authors surveyed directors of the 232 American Psychological Association (APA)–accredited doctoral programs in clinical psychology (98% response) regarding application numbers, acceptance rates, financial assistance, and credentials of incoming students. Results are summarized for all clinical programs and then separately for 6 types of programs along the practice–research continuum: freestanding PsyD, university professional school PsyD, university department PsyD, practice-oriented PhD, equal-emphasis PhD, and research-oriented PhD. Lower acceptance rates and higher Graduate Record Examination scores were strongly associated with programs oriented toward more research training; for example, research-oriented PhD programs admitted far fewer applicants (7% vs. 50%) than did freestanding PsyD programs. Freestanding PsyD programs awarded significantly less full financial assistance to incoming students (1% vs. 89%) and required 1 less year to complete than did PhD programs. Overall, PhD-level students were more likely to secure an APA or Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers internship than were PsyD students. The authors conclude with observations about the historical changes and heightened differentiation of doctoral training in clinical psychology.

Specialized training in APA-accredited clinical psychology doctoral programs: Findings from a review of program websites.

The current study examined the websites of the 231 clinical psychology doctoral programs accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 2007 and found that more than half described themselves as offering a track, emphasis, certificate, or degree in a specialized training area. About 18% of programs required students to enroll in a specialized training stream. The most common areas of specialized training were clinical child, clinical health, forensic, family, and clinical neuropsychology. The most common format for specialized training was a track within a general clinical training program. A greater percentage of PsyD programs than PhD programs offered specialized training, and PsyD programs offered more areas of specialization than PhD programs. Overall, results indicate that specialized training is common among APA-accredited clinical psychology doctoral programs.

Review of Insider's Guide to Graduate Programs in Clinical and Counseling Psychology 2004/2005 Edition.

MICHAEL A. SAYETTE, TRACY J. MAYNE and JOHN C. NORCROSS Insider's Guide to Graduate Programs in Clinical and Counseling Psychology 2004/2005 Edition New York: Guilford Press, 2004, 340 pages (ISBN 1-57230-978-4, US$23.95 Paperback) The purpose of this book is to help students prepare for admission into clinical or counseling psychology graduate programs and to assist with the corresponding application process. Including several web resources, updated profiles and contact information for North American programs, data outlining admissions criteria, and sample letters, CVs and a personal statement, the Insider's Guide is designed to help both current and future applicants prepare for and apply strategically to graduate school. Well written and using straightforward language and information presented in text, table, and list formats, the authors draw on research data and personal anecdotes to outline the application process and its various considerations. The book covers all steps of the process from the initial decision to pursue graduate work in clinical or counseling psychology to the final decision one makes upon offers of admission. Readers can search for program matches by specific research interests or practica opportunities, and can peruse the profiles, complete with admissions requirements and faculty theoretical orientations, of almost 300 professional, clinical, and counseling psychology programs. In addition, throughout the guide, the authors artfully balance realism and encouragement. For example, while being realistic about rates of admission into graduate programs and required skills and experiences, the authors are never pessimistic with their advice; in fact, Sayette et al. encourage readers to reach for the stars in pursuit of graduate work and to persist throughout the application process. Although the title of this book may attract students at a certain stage in graduate preparation - those close to starting or in the midst of applications - persons at all levels and various stages of preparation may find this book helpful. For the individual contemplating graduate work in clinical or counseling psychology, the introductory chapter provides an overview of the two professions and highlights the differences between PhD and PsyD programs. Similarly, the authors present a brief description of careers within the helping profession (e.g., medicine, social work) that students may consider as alternatives to clinical or counseling psychology. For students committed to graduate work in clinical or counseling psychology, this book is comprehensive in its description of common admissions requirements such as standardized examinations, research experience, faculty mentorship, and specific undergraduate courses. Indeed, a strength of the Insider's Guide is its recognition that readers may be at different stages in their studies. Specifically, in the chapter on preparing for graduate work, the authors address lower and senior level undergraduates, college graduates and master's level clinicians, and tailor the information to fit the reader's various background and stage of education. Moreover, while the book contains abundant information on clinical and counseling programs and mastering the application process, one of its greatest features is a timeline for preparing for graduate work in these fields. Beginning with recommendations for students in initial undergraduate years (e.g., take core psychology courses, join psychology student organizations) and culminating in April/May of the application year, the timeline provides students with an organized method of preparing for graduate school and completing the rigorous application process. This timeline can help focus students and ensure the meeting of deadlines and timely completion of applications. The timeline breaks the application process into manageable steps and could, for many readers, decrease the stresses that arise from preparing for and applying to graduate school. …

Graduate Study in Psychology: 1971-2004.

This article traces the evolution of graduate study in psychology in the United States and Canada during the past 3 decades. The authors summarize the 2003-2004 characteristics of graduate programs and departments in psychology and compare these data to those obtained in 1970-1971, 1979-1980, and 1992-1993. The most recent data were obtained from the 2005 edition of Graduate Study in Psychology and were based on 495 institutions, 601 departments, and 1,970 graduate programs. Information is presented for both entire departments (e.g., faculty characteristics, student profiles, admission criteria, Graduate Record Examination and grade point averages, tuition costs, financial assistance) and individual graduate programs (e.g., areas of study, number of applicants, acceptance rates, enrollment statistics, retention rates). Particular attention is devoted to the emergence of PsyD programs in professional psychology, the ascendancy of neuroscience programs in academic psychology, and the steady rise in acceptance rates across programs over the past 33 years.

The PsyD: Heterogeneity in Practitioner Training.

The paucity of research on PsyD programs has led to unsubstantiated generalizations and uniformity myths about practitioner training. The authors collected information on the admission rates, financial assistance, theoretical orientations, and selected characteristics of American Psychological Association (APA)–accredited PsyD programs in clinical psychology (89% response rate). Systematic comparisons were made between PsyD programs housed in university departments, university professional schools, and freestanding institutions to describe the differences and commonalities among the heterogeneous PsyD programs. Empirical comparisons were provided among APA-accredited PsyD, practice-oriented PhD, and research-oriented PhD programs in clinical psychology to highlight the distinctive features of PsyD programs.