Psychopathic Traits Research Articles

Anger and aggression research: A bibliometric analysis from 2012 to 2022.

Anger and aggression are common sources of distress and impairment. There is, however, no available data on anger and aggression based on bibliometric analysis. This study uses bibliometric analysis to analyze research hotspots and trends in anger and aggression. Publications on anger and aggression within the last ten years were collected from the Web of Science Core Collection. Using descriptive bibliometrics, journals, countries, institutions, authors, references, and keywords in anger and aggression research were visually analyzed via CiteSpace. A total of 3114 articles were included, and studies on anger and aggression increased yearly. The publications are mainly from 106 countries led by the USA and 381 institutions led by Univ Penn. We identified 505 authors, where Emil F. Coccaro had the highest number of articles, while Buss A.H. was the most frequently co-cited author. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR is the journal that bore most of the studies, while PLOS ONE was the most cited journal. Our analysis demonstrated that research on anger and aggression is flourishing. Behaviors of anger and aggression, risk factors, neural mechanisms, personality, and adolescence have been researched hotspots in the past ten years. Besides, victimization, drosophila melanogaster, psychopathic traits, and perpetration are emerging anger and aggression research trends.

A multi-method investigation of motive dispositions: affiliative and antagonistic dispositions in psychopathy

Purpose To replicate and extend research on psychopathy and intrinsic interpersonal preferences under the broader umbrella of affiliation, intimacy and antagonism, this paper aims to examine motivational correlates of psychopathy in a nonclinical sample (N = 125). Design/methodology/approach We used a multimethod design, including self-reports, a behavioral task and a physiological assessment of motive dispositions (automatic affective reactions to stimuli of interpersonal transactions measured with facial electromyography). Findings Results showed that self-reported psychopathy was negatively associated with self-reported intimacy motive. In the same vein, via the social discounting task, this paper found a negative association between psychopathy and a tendency to share hypothetical monetary amounts with very close others. Finally, regarding fEMG findings, multilevel analyses revealed that although individuals with low levels of psychopathy reacted more positively to affiliative stimuli, individuals with high levels of psychopathy reacted equally positively to both affiliative and antagonistic stimuli, and these results were robust across psychopathy measures. Results remained mostly unchanged on the subscale level. Originality/value These findings highlight the contribution of multimethod assessments in capturing nuances of motivation. Implicit physiological measures might be particularly sensitive in capturing motive dispositions in relation to psychopathy. Identifying mechanisms that foster positive connections between psychopathic traits and nonprosocial tendencies may be theoretically and clinically informative, with implications for forensic and penal practices.

Examining the relationship between resting heart rate and callous-unemotional traits in juvenile delinquency

PurposeBoth the resting heart rate (RHR) and the callous-unemotional (CU) traits have been associated with juvenile delinquency, however the effect of their interaction is not yet clear. MethodsFour hundred and twenty-three institutionalized adolescents divided into early adolescents (10–14 years, n = 133), late adolescents (15–17 years, n = 286), and young adults (18–22 years, n = 136) participated in the study. RHR was measured using a wristband, and CU traits and delinquency history were assessed using self-reported questionnaires. Moderation analysis was performed to understand how the combination between RHR and CU is associated to offending. ResultsCU traits were associated with offending at all ages. The interactions between RHR and CU traits were significantly related to the likelihood of offending in the early and the late adolescent. The highest likelihood of offending is related to high CU traits combined with low RHR in early adolescents and with high RHR in late adolescents. ConclusionsThese findings provide further insight in the relationship between psychopathic traits and biophysiological maturation in explaining juvenile delinquency.

Impacts of psychopathic traits dimensions on the development of indirect aggression from childhood to adolescence.

Children who show elevated levels of indirect aggression (IA) from childhood to adolescence are at increased risks of experiencing detrimental outcomes. Some studies suggest that psychopathic traits could act as a predisposing vulnerability in the development of IA, but the contributions of all three dimensions of psychopathic traits in explaining developmental trajectories of IA from childhood to adolescence remain unclear. This study aimed to determine if the three dimensions of psychopathic traits during childhood (i.e., callous-unemotional, narcissism-grandiosity, and impulsivity-irresponsibility at 6-9 years old) increase the risk of following a high IA trajectory across preadolescence, and whether sex moderated these associations. Participants were 744 children (47% girls; 93% born in Quebec, Canada, and over 50% from low socioeconomic backgrounds) assessed annually over 5 years. Approximately half of them (n = 370; 40.3% girls) were referred to school-based services for conduct problems (CP) at study intake. Latent class growth analyses revealed four developmental trajectories of IA, which were regressed on psychopathic traits dimensions using a three-step approach. After adjusting for demographic confounders, CP, and other dimensions of psychopathic traits, only narcissism-grandiosity traits significantly predicted memberships to a high and stable trajectory of IA use. The associations between the other dimensions of psychopathic traits and IA trajectories were not significant when considering confounders. No moderating effects by child sex were observed. These results suggest that narcissism-grandiosity traits could be of use for clinicians aiming to detect children most at risk of showing high and persistent levels of IA. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Psychopathic Traits in a Swedish Court-Ordered Forensic Sample: Preferential Associations of Boldness, Meanness, and Disinhibition.

The construct validity of the triarchic psychopathy model has yet to be evaluated in the Swedish forensic psychiatric context. We examined associations between the three phenotypic constructs of the triarchic model of psychopathy (i.e., boldness, meanness, disinhibition), self-assessed empathy and anxiety, and clinical variables in 91 individuals undergoing pretrial forensic psychiatric evaluation in Sweden. Participants completed the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) and self-report measures of empathy and anxiety. Clinical variables, including psychiatric diagnoses and criminal behavior, were collected from the forensic psychiatric evaluations (FPE). All three subscales of the TriPM displayed significant and predominantly anticipated correlations with empathy and trait anxiety measures. TriPM Disinhibition was the only subscale with significant associations with the clinical variables collected from the FPEs. The results provide evidence for the reliability and construct validity of the Swedish translation of the TriPM in a pretrial forensic setting.

An empirical test of a new trait-based measure for psychopathy in a community sample of adults

In the current study, we used latent profile analysis to investigate the Dimensional Clinical Personality Inventory 2 capacity to discriminate psychopathy traits in a sample of adults. Participants were 628 adults from the general population recruited by convenience. Our latent profile analysis recovered two groups: Psychopathic Tendencies and Empathetic Tendencies. The psychopathic tendencies group scored higher in all the IDCP-2 factors comprising psychopathy features. Although our study has sample restrictions, we found evidence for using IDCP-2 factors to discriminate people with low and high levels of psychopathic traits. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.

Individual Differences in Females' Adherence to Public Health Measures and Psychopathology Symptoms During a Global Health Crisis: the Role of Triarchic Psychopathic Traits.

The two broad aims of this study were to (a) investigate how the three traits of the triarchic model-boldness, meanness, and disinhibition-relate to compliance with public health measures, as well as to internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, during a public health crisis, and (b) test for associations between psychopathology and compliance with public health measures. Participants were 947 Brazilian adult females aged 18-75years who completed measures of the triarchic traits, internalizing and externalizing symptoms/problems, and a COVID-19 behaviors and beliefs questionnaire. Multiple regression and path analyses showed meanness to be the only triarchic trait significantly predictive of compliance with public health measures, in a negative direction, when controlling for the other traits. Results also demonstrated that compliance with public health measures was associated with levels of distress (negatively), obsessions/fear (positively), and positive mood (negatively). Overall, the results demonstrate the contributions of the triarchic traits to understanding complex phenomena, highlighting meanness as the most essential triarchic trait predictor of adherence to public health measures among females.

I lie because I am good at: psychopathic traits do not influence the effects of fabrication on memory

ABSTRACT Studies have shown that lying can detrimentally affect memory. For example, when people fabricate a false account, this fabrication can turn into a false memory. The current experiment aimed to examine whether the typical effects on memory due to fabrication depend on psychopathy traits. 232 participants completed the Personality Psychopathy Inventory-Revised and watched a mock crime video. Subsequently, participants had to imagine being interviewed as the main suspect of the crime by either telling the truth or lying about the crime. After one-week, all participants were instructed to tell the truth. Fabrication led to false memories. Specific psychopathy traits influenced the recall in that higher psychopathic traits were associated with worse event-related memory (i.e. less correct details and more memory errors). However, psychopathic traits did not intervene in the mnemonic effects of fabrication. Findings can be useful for legal practitioners who deal with statements’ reliability.

Psychopathic traits and altered resting-state functional connectivity in incarcerated adolescent girls.

Previous work in incarcerated boys and adult men and women suggest that individuals scoring high on psychopathic traits show altered resting-state limbic/paralimbic, and default mode functional network properties. However, it is unclear whether similar results extend to high-risk adolescent girls with elevated psychopathic traits. This study examined whether psychopathic traits [assessed via the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV)] were associated with altered inter-network connectivity, intra-network connectivity (i.e., functional coherence within a network), and amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFFs) across resting-state networks among high-risk incarcerated adolescent girls (n = 40). Resting-state networks were identified by applying group independent component analysis (ICA) to resting-state fMRI scans, and a priori regions of interest included limbic, paralimbic, and default mode network components. We tested the association of psychopathic traits (PCL:YV Factor 1 measuring affective/interpersonal traits and PCL:YV Factor 2 assessing antisocial/lifestyle traits) to these three resting-state measures. PCL:YV Factor 1 scores were associated with increased low-frequency and decreased high-frequency fluctuations in components corresponding to the default mode network, as well as increased intra-network FNC in components corresponding to cognitive control networks. PCL:YV Factor 2 scores were associated with increased low-frequency fluctuations in sensorimotor networks and decreased high-frequency fluctuations in default mode, sensorimotor, and visual networks. Consistent with previous analyses in incarcerated adult women, our results suggest that psychopathic traits among incarcerated adolescent girls are associated with altered intra-network ALFFs-primarily that of increased low-frequency and decreased high-frequency fluctuations-and connectivity across multiple networks including paralimbic regions. These results suggest stable neurobiological correlates of psychopathic traits among women across development.

The impact of empathy priming on the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale for those with antisocial/psychopathic traits

ABSTRACT Rape Myth Acceptance (RMA) remains a persistent problem in rape and sexual assault cases. Several scholars (e.g. Mouilso, E. R., & Calhoun, K. S. (2013). The role of rape myth acceptance and psychopathy in sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 22(2), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2013.743937) discussed RMA as a cognitive distortion that constitutes a crucial link between psychopathy and rape perpetration. Research has indicated that empathy can help counteract bias and promote understanding and support for individuals who have experienced sexual violence (Batson, C. D., Polycarpou, M. P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H. J., Mitchener, E. C., Bednar, L. L., Klein, T. R., & Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.105). The overall goal of this study was to experimentally assess the relationship between empathy priming, psychopathy, and RMA. Specifically, it aimed to examine whether psychopathic traits influence the relationship between empathy priming and RMA. The study included 518 participants from Ontario Tech University and the community. Results indicated that the amount of effort invested in the empathy priming task significantly reduced rape-supportive attitudes, but only when the participants had high levels of psychopathic personality traits. Limitations of the study and potential directions for future research are discussed. PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENT The present research offers a unique perspective in understanding the efficiency of empathy priming on rape-supportive attitudes in individuals with high- and low-trait psychopathy. Additionally, it highlights the significance of active involvement and engagement in empathy-based sexual assault prevention programmes, particularly when targeting individuals with high psychopathic traits.

Recidivism risk in male adult sex offenders with psychopathic traits assessed by PCL-R: A systematic review.

Psychopathy has been empirically associated with various forms of antisocial behavior including sexual assault. In fact, the lack of empathy characterizing psychopathic offenders may facilitate the perpetration of more extreme violence. This systematic review aims to explore the relationship between psychopathy traits in male adult sex offenders and the increase in recidivism risk for any type of reoffence, with a special focus on sexual recidivism. From an initial sample of 757 articles related to the topic, only 14 were selected from the current literature at the end of the inclusion process. Each of these assessed the relation between psychopathy traits (measured by PCL-R) and recidivism risk in male sex offenders (age > 18), providing an effect size (quantitative findings). The results of their analysis agree with the currently available literature: the presence of psychopathic traits in sex offenders would seem to correlate with an increased risk of recidivism of general but non-sexual. Furthermore, almost half of the included works highlighted a positive relationship between psychopathy and violent reoffences. However, the limited availability of studies and the unevenness in their results indicate the need to expand future research in this direction.

Attentional impulsivity accounts for the association of antisociality with craving and mental health problems in incarcerated individuals with substance dependence

PurposePrisoners with substance use disorder (SUD) are at risk of mental health problems. Given the common co-occurring of psychopathic traits with SUDs, probably because of underlying impulsive traits (Ellingson et al., 2018), this study aims to examine the relation between psychopathy (impulsive antisociality and fearless dominance) and the functioning of incarcerated individuals with SUD. The authors investigated whether impulsivity (motor, nonplanning and attentional) can account for the relationship between one psychopathy facet (impulsive antisociality) and craving and mental health problems.Design/methodology/approachThe authors assessed self-reported impulsivity, psychopathy, craving and mental health problems in 121 male incarcerated individuals with SUD and calculated cross-sectional linear regression analyses and mediation models.FindingsImpulsive antisociality was positively related to all impulsivity facets, craving and mental health problems. Attentional impulsivity mediated the relationship of impulsive antisociality with craving and mental health problems. Fearless dominance was related to lower attentional and nonplanning impulsivity, craving and mental health problems.Research limitations/implicationsFuture studies should investigate these relations in longitudinal studies and evaluate tailored approaches, for example, mindfulness interventions.Practical implicationsInterventions to reduce craving and improve mental health might be important for those who display self-centered, antisocial behavior but are less relevant for those with fearless, dominant interpersonal behavior. Addressing attentional impulsivity may be of special interest in this regard.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study was the first to investigate the mediating role of different impulsivity facets for the association of impulsive antisociality with craving and with mental health problems in incarcerated individuals with SUD.

The role of the dark triad and emotion regulation in women’ sexual coercion: a social information processing perspective

PurposeThe perpetration of sexual coercion is a complex public health problem associated with many kinds of deficits. The literature has shown that women also perpetrate sexually coercive behaviours. Recent work has suggested that this kind of behaviour could be explained by two distinct developmental pathways. However, this model does not allow the authors to identify how the individual processes social information in situ and may decide to resort to coercive behaviours. This study aimed to investigate the role of social information processing in women’s sexual coercion.Design/methodology/approachA sample of 125 French-speaking women from the general population were recruited to complete online questionnaires pertaining to dark triad personality traits, emotion abilities, alexithymia and antecedents of sexual coercion.FindingsResults revealed that women with a history of sexual coercion had a significantly higher narcissistic traits score and more emotion regulation (ER) deficits than those without a history. For women with a history of sexual coercion perpetration, correlational analyses showed positive correlations, respectively, between psychopathic traits and alexithymia and between Machiavellianism and deficits in ER.Originality/valueThese results contribute to identifying the deficits relating to SIP in terms of sexual coercion perpetrated by women. Women with a history of sexual coercion perpetration appear to endorse more dark triad traits and to have ER issues. Certain level of these deficits could be a trigger and affect the SIP of women and increase the likelihood behaving in a sexually coercive manner.

Childhood Experiences of Alternative Care and Callousness/Unemotionality: A Conceptual Model, Scoping Review, and Research Agenda.

Individuals with experiences of alternative care (AC; i.e., out-of-home care and institutional care) are at high risk for various mental health and relational problems stemming from exposure to serious attachment disruptions, loss, and complex trauma. Yet, despite the interpersonal context of their significant adversities, surprisingly there is scant research explicitly focusing on callousness/unemotionality (e.g., lack of guilt, callous disregard for others) in this population. This paper provides the first conceptual model for, and systematic scoping review of, callousness/unemotionality in children and young people with experiences of AC. In a comprehensive search of nine databases, 22 articles involving samples of participants in AC or with histories of AC, were identified for inclusion. The pattern of findings revealed that callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits are elevated in children and young people with AC experiences, and positively associated with AC. Moreover, results showed associations between these traits and various psychosocial correlates, most consistently with externalizing and internalizing problems and attachment-related problems. Only two intervention studies were located, one of which found benefits of training and supporting foster caregivers for reducing callous-unemotional traits. These findings are discussed with respect to gaps in the literature, future research directions, and trauma-informed practice to assess and treat callousness/unemotionality in children and young people with experiences of AC.

Psychopathic traits in the interpersonal context: Is the effect of psychopathic traits on prosocial behavior mediated by peer problems?

Psychopathic traits are often investigated within the individual, while most traits come to expression within the interpersonal context. Low social communion might even be an important overlooked core feature of psychopathy. This raises the question how psychopathic (i.e., Grandiose-Manipulative, Callous-Unemotional, and Irresponsible-Impulsive) traits affect the tendency to show prosocial behavior, and whether peer problems explain this relationship. Besides, the effects of gender on these subrelations are explored. In total, 541 community adolescents and emerging adults (26.4 % men; 16–25 years old, Mage = 21.7, SDage = 2.50) completed questionnaires, measuring psychopathic traits, prosocial behavior, and peer problems. The relationship between psychopathic traits and prosocial behavior was investigated with three separate moderated mediation regression analyses (for Grandiose-Manipulative, Callous-Unemotional, and Impulsive-Irresponsible traits separately) including peer problems as mediator and gender as moderator. Significant direct negative effects of Grandiose-Manipulative and Callous-Unemotional traits on prosocial behavior were found, though not for Impulsive-Irresponsible traits. Peer problems did not mediate this relation and gender was no moderator. The significant moderation effect indicated that only for women a significant direct positive effect of Callous-Unemotional traits on peer problems was found, but not for men nor other psychopathic traits. More gender differences were found with men (vs. women) scoring significantly higher on all three psychopathic traits and lower on prosocial behavior. Implications of psychopathic traits within the interpersonal context are discussed and future research could further investigate how this relationship can be explained, for example by including different types of measures and other potential mediators (e.g., empathy).

Psychopathy and substance use predict recidivism in women: A 7-year prospective study.

Recidivism places a significant burden on society and efforts aimed at reducing cyclical criminal justice involvement are needed. This prospective study tested the utility of psychopathic traits in predicting general, felony, and substance-related rearrest in women following release from a correctional facility. The extent to which psychopathic traits offered incremental utility in predicting outcomes, above and beyond other established risk factors, including substance use disorder, was examined. Participants included 327 incarcerated adult women who completed comprehensive clinical and psychiatric assessments prior to release from correctional facilities. Psychopathic traits and lifetime substance use disorder were measured using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) and Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, respectively. Results showed that general, felony, and substance-related rearrest following institutional release were associated with higher PCL-R Factor 2 scores, assessing lifestyle/behavioral and antisocial/developmental psychopathic traits. Additionally, when controlling for other risk factors associated with recidivism, including age at release, number of prior adult prison terms, and substance use disorder, higher PCL-R Factor 2 scores remained significantly associated with rearrest outcomes in women. Findings inform risk prediction and treatment efforts aimed at reducing recidivism in justice-involved women. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Why might psychopathy develop? Beyond a protective function: a commentary on Zara et al. (2023)

Purpose Zara et al. (2023) provide novel findings into how psychopathy may develop, showing that early life predictors of poor relationships (e.g. being unwanted before birth) are predictive of psychopathy in adulthood. The authors provide a theoretical interpretation of why psychopathy might develop based on these findings by using an adaptive perspective, suggesting that psychopathy may protect or shield individuals from poor relationships. This commentary aims to critically evaluate and extend this latter suggestion in hopes of fostering further research and clarity on the topic. Design/methodology/approach After presenting an overview of evolutionary perspectives, a summary and elaboration are presented of the interpretation that psychopathy may be an adaptive response that functions to protect individuals from poor relationships. Then, an additional adaptive interpretation is offered. Findings Psychopathy describes a collection of traits and behavior that facilitates an approach-oriented and exploitative motivational style that might suggest more than a protective function. When negative or poor relationships are experienced (e.g. being unwanted), it is suggested that psychopathy may begin to develop not just for protection (If I am not loved, I will shield myself from those around me) but to actively orient toward exploitation (If I am not loved, I will exploit those around me). Originality/value This commentary hopes to arouse further interest into the theoretical interpretations of why psychopathy may develop that are based on findings of how psychopathy develops. These considerations are consequential for understanding what to target in treatments that aim to meet the specific needs and motivations of individuals with psychopathic traits.

Sexual assault proclivity and sexual aggression in college men: Associations with psychopathic traits and sex drive

BackgroundConceptual models of sexual violence against women suggest that psychopathic traits and aspects of hypersexuality are important risk factors in a variety of populations. In college samples, studies have yet to examine (1) whether sex drive as a component of hypersexuality is linked with sexual violence and (2) whether both psychopathic traits and sex drive are uniquely associated with sexual violence (i.e., proclivity for sexual assault, prior sexual coercion), beyond other known risk factors and each other. MethodsA structural equation modeling approach was used to examine a large representative sample of college men (N = 1148; Mage = 20.09, SD = 2.16) assessed for known risk factors of sexual violence, their sexual assault proclivity, and prior sexual coercion. FindingsLatent psychopathy and sex drive factors were moderately associated; however, only the psychopathic traits factor was linked to both sexual assault proclivity and prior sexual coercion—over age, empathy, and alcohol use—whereas the sex drive factor associated with sexual assault proclivity. ConclusionPsychopathy was the strongest factor linked to sexual violence in this national sample of college men. Consistent with increasing attention as a risk component, sex drive also accounted for sexually violent risk factors.

Cognition, prior aggression, and psychopathic traits in relation to impaired multimodal emotion recognition in psychotic spectrum disorders.

Psychopathic traits have been associated with impaired emotion recognition in criminal, clinical and community samples. A recent study however, suggested that cognitive impairment reduced the relationship between psychopathy and emotion recognition. We therefore investigated if reasoning ability and psychomotor speed were impacting emotion recognition in individuals with psychotic spectrum disorders (PSD) with and without a history of aggression, as well as in healthy individuals, more than self-rated psychopathy ratings on the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM). Eighty individuals with PSD (schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, other psychoses, psychotic bipolar disorder) and documented history of aggression (PSD+Agg) were compared with 54 individuals with PSD without prior aggression (PSD-Agg) and with 86 healthy individuals on the Emotion Recognition Assessment in Multiple Modalities (ERAM test). Individuals were psychiatrically stable and in remission from possible substance use disorders. Scaled scores on matrix reasoning, averages of dominant hand psychomotor speed and self-rated TriPM scores were obtained. Associations existed between low reasoning ability, low psychomotor speed, patient status and prior aggression with total accuracy on the ERAM test. PSD groups performed worse than the healthy group. Whole group correlations between total and subscale scores of TriPM to ERAM were found, but no associations with TriPM scores within each group or in general linear models when accounting for reasoning ability, psychomotor speed, understanding of emotion words and prior aggression. Self-rated psychopathy was not independently linked to emotion recognition in PSD groups when considering prior aggression, patient status, reasoning ability, psychomotor speed and emotion word understanding.

Sex differences in psychopathic traits during early adolescence: The role of heart rate

PurposePsychopathy – a condition associated with early, pervasive, and severe antisocial behaviors – has been found to be relatively stable over the life-course. While studies have documented a consistent sex difference in psychopathy, the explanatory mechanism is unclear. MethodsUsing a sample of 452 youth (Mage = 11.92 years, 49.6% female), this study empirically tests whether lower heart rate during a social stress task could serve as a causal mechanism to explain the sex difference in psychopathic traits as measured by the Antisocial Process Screening Device. ResultsResults support prior evidence that males exhibit lower heart rates than females and that lower heart rate is associated with higher levels of psychopathy. However, heart rate during a stressor does not sufficiently explain the sex difference in psychopathic traits overall, although it seems to partially explain the sex difference in impulsivity, a key behavioral component of psychopathy. DiscussionThe findings suggest that more research is needed to understand how sex differences in psychopathy emerge in early life and encourages further research on the age(s) or developmental stages at which low heart rate – a well-replicated biological correlate of antisociality – is relevant to understanding the etiology of psychopathy and other antisocial behaviors.