Psittacine Species Research Articles

Minimum anesthetic concentration of isoflurane and sparing effect of midazolam in Quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus)

ObjectiveTo determine the effects of midazolam on the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) reduction of end-tidal isoflurane concentration (Fe′Iso) measured using an electrical stimulus in Quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus). Study designRandomized crossover experimental study. AnimalsA group of six adult Quaker parrots, weighing 98–124 g. MethodsBirds were anesthetized with isoflurane in oxygen delivered by mask, then tracheally intubated and mechanically ventilated. Three treatments were applied with a 4 day interval between anesthetic events. Each anesthetized bird was administered midazolam (1 mg kg−1; treatment MID1), midazolam (2 mg kg−1; treatment MID2) or electrolyte solution (control) intramuscularly. The treatments were administered using a replicated Latin square design and the observers were blinded. Based on a pilot bird, the starting Fe′Iso was 1.8%. After equilibration for 10 minutes, a supramaximal stimulus was delivered using an electrical current (20 V and 50 Hz for 10 ms) and birds were observed for non-reflex movement. The Fe′Iso was titrated by 0.1% until a crossover event was observed. The MAC was estimated using logistic regression. ResultsThe MAC of isoflurane (MACISO) was estimated at 2.52% [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.19–2.85] with a range of 1.85–2.65%. MACISO in MID1 was 2.04% (95% CI, 1.71–2.37) and in MID2 was 1.81% (95% CI, 1.48–2.14); reductions in MACISO from control of 19% (p = 0.001) and 28% (p < 0.001), respectively. Heart rate, temperature, sex and anesthetic time were not different among treatments. ConclusionsMidazolam (1–2 mg kg−1) intramuscularly resulted in a significant isoflurane-sparing effect in response to a noxious stimulus in Quaker parrots without observable adverse effects. Clinical relevanceMidazolam can be used as part of a balanced anesthetic approach using isoflurane in Quaker parrots, and potentially in other psittacine species.

Assessing circovirus gene flow in multiple spill-over events.

The establishment of viral pathogens in new host environments following spillover events probably requires adaptive changes within both the new host and pathogen. After many generations, signals for ancient cross-species transmission may become lost and a strictly host-adapted phylogeny may mimic true co-divergence while the virus may retain an inherent ability to jump host species. The mechanistic basis for such processes remains poorly understood.To study the dynamics of virus-host co-divergence and the arbitrary chances of spillover in various reservoir hosts with equal ecological opportunity, we examined structural constraints of capsid protein in extant populations of Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) during known spillover events. By assessing reservoir-based genotype stratification, we identified co-divergence defying signatures in the evolution BFDV which highlighted primordial processes of cryptic host adaptation and competing forces of host co-divergence and cross-species transmission. We demonstrate that, despite extensive surface plasticity gathered over a longer span of evolution, structural constraints of the capsid protein allow opportunistic host switching in host-adapted populations. This study provides new insights into how small populations of endangered psittacine species may face multidirectional forces of infection from reservoirs with apparently co-diverging genotypes.

First detection and molecular characterization of avian polyomavirus in young parrots in Pakistan.

Avian polyomavirus (APV) infection, also called as budgerigar fledgling disease (BFD) causes various health problems in many psittacine species which may cause untimely death. The aims of this study were to investigate, for the first time, the detection, molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of avian polyomavirus (APV) in Pakistani psittacine birds. In an aviary a disease similar to APV was found and 90% of the nestlings died within a few weeks. Seven to ten-day-old parrot nestlings (n = 3) from the aviary were presented with feather abnormalities, plumage defect and were clinically depressed. Birds died at 11th, 14th and 16th day of age. Samples of hearts, livers, spleen, feathers and kidneys were collected from the dead birds. Samples were analyzed for the presence of APV DNA by using PCR. APV VP1 gene was partially sequenced, and phylogenetic analysis was performed. The APV strain was similar to those previously reported in other areas of the world. The results of this investigation indicate presence of a high frequency of APV infections in psittacine birds in Pakistan.

Food sharing and affiliation: An experimental and longitudinal study in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)

AbstractFood sharing has attracted much attention because of its apparently altruistic nature and its link to prosociality. However, food sharing has been mostly studied in a reproductive context, during courtship and parental care, where the fitness benefits are obvious. We still lack a clear understanding of the functions of food sharing outside any reproductive context and within social groups of same‐aged peers. Previous studies suggest that cofeeding, the action to let another animal feed from the same monopolizable food source, may be used to build and strengthen bonds between individuals. This may be particularly crucial in social birds forming long‐term associations between mates or siblings such as psittacids and corvids. Here, we investigated food sharing and affiliative behaviors such as allopreening in a psittacine species, namely in a group of captive juvenile cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) consisting of five siblings and five unrelated birds. Our main objective was to study the developmental pattern of food sharing over time and its implication in social bonding depending on kinship, affiliation, and sex. Studying cockatiels in this context is providing many new information since most of the studies on food sharing in birds focused on corvids. We found that, contrary to jackdaws, cockatiels continued to share food with multiple individuals, although the frequency of cofeeding as well as the number of cofeeding partners decreased over time. Cockatiels shared more food with their siblings than with other conspecifics but they were not more likely to do cofeeding with birds of the opposite sex. We also found evidence that young cockatiels exchanged more food with those from whom they received food (reciprocity) and, to a lesser extent, allopreening (interchange), than from other cockatiels. Our findings suggest that in cockatiels, food sharing within social groups serves the formation (and maintenance) of affiliative bonds, especially between siblings, rather than pair bonds, but might additionally be explained by reciprocity, interchange, and harassment avoidance.

Psittacid Adenovirus-2 infection in the critically endangered orange-bellied parrot (Neophema chrysogastor): A key threatening process or an example of a host-adapted virus?

Psittacid Adenovirus-2 (PsAdv-2) was identified in captive orange-bellied parrots (Neophema chrysogastor) during a multifactorial cluster of mortalities at the Adelaide Zoo, South Australia, and an outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa septicaemia at the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment captive breeding facility, Taroona, Tasmania. This was the first time that an adenovirus had been identified in orange-bellied parrots and is the first report of PsAdv-2 in Australia. To investigate the status of PsAdv-2 in the captive population of orange-bellied parrots, 102 healthy birds from five breeding facilities were examined for the presence of PsAdv-2 DNA in droppings and/or cloacal swabs using a nested polymerase chain reaction assay. Additionally, eight birds released to the wild for the 2016 breeding season were similarly tested when they were recaptured prior to migration to be held in captivity for the winter. PsAdv-2 was identified in all breeding facilities as well as the birds recaptured from the wild. Prevalence of shedding ranged from 29.7 to 76.5%, demonstrating that PsAdv-2 is endemic in the captive population of orange-bellied parrots and that wild parrots may have been exposed to the virus. PsAdv-2 DNA was detected in both cloacal swabs and faeces of the orange-bellied parrots, but testing both samples from the same birds suggested that testing faeces would be more sensitive than cloacal swabs. PsAdv-2 was not found in other psittacine species housed in nearby aviaries at the Adelaide Zoo. The source of the infection in the orange-bellied parrots remains undetermined. In this study, PsAdv-2 prevalence of shedding was higher in adult birds as compared to birds less than one year old. Preliminary data also suggested a correlation between adenovirus shedding prevalence within the breeding collection and chick survival.

Novel siadenovirus infection in a cockatiel with chronic liver disease

A 15-year-old female cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) undergoing long term management for hepatopathy died and underwent necropsy. Microscopic findings were consistent with chronic liver disease characterized by distorted hepatic architecture, fibrosis and biliary proliferation. The additional finding of large intranuclear inclusion bodies within hepatocytes and renal tubular epithelium prompted diagnostic next generation sequencing. The assembled sequences isolated from pooled kidney and liver were related to siadenoviruses. The genus Siadenovirus, within the family Adenoviridae, includes several species of viruses that pathogenically infect avian species including hemorrhagic enteritis virus of turkeys and marble spleen virus of pheasants. Siadenoviruses have previously been reported in seven psittacine species: a plum-headed parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala), an umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba) budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulates), an eastern rosella (Platycercus eximius), a scarlet chested parrot (Neophema splendida), a cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), and a red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae). This report describes a novel siadenovirus in a cockatiel that is highly identical to budgerigar adenovirus 1 and distinct from PsAdV-2 in cockatiels. We report the clinical pathologic, gross, and histopathologic findings in a cockatiel with chronic hepatitis and a novel siadenovirus, PsAdV-5. The sequencing data is presented with a phylogenetic analysis.

From the cage to the wild: introductions of Psittaciformes to Puerto Rico.

Introduced psittacine birds can become highly invasive. In this study, we assessed invasions of Psittaciformes in Puerto Rico. We reviewed the literature, public databases, citizen science records, and performed in situ population surveys across the island to determine the historical and current status and distribution of psittacine species. We used count data from Ebird to determine population trends. For species whose populations were increasing, we modelled their potential distribution using niche modeling techniques. We found 46 Psittaciformes in Puerto Rico, of which 26% are only present as pets, at least 29 species have been reported in the wild, and of those, there is evidence that at least 12 species are breeding. Our results indicate that most introduced species which have been detected as established still persist, although mostly in localized areas and small populations. Clear evidence of invasiveness was found for Brotogeris versicolurus and Myiopsitta monachus, which have greatly expanded their range in recent years. Psittacara erythrogenys and Eupsittacula canicularis also showed population increases, although to a lesser degree. The niche models predicted suitable areas for the four species, and also indicate the potential for range expansion. We discuss the factors leading to invasion success, assess the potential impacts, and we discuss possible management strategies and research prospects.

Lipid-Related Lesions in Quaker Parrots ( Myiopsitta monachus).

The Quaker parrot has been used as a psittacine model to study clinical lipidology and lipid-related disorders. However, while Quaker parrots appear to be anecdotally susceptible to a variety of spontaneous dyslipidemic disorders and lesions caused by excess lipid accumulation, epidemiologic data are lacking. A multicenter retrospective study on 652 pathology submissions (411 necropsies and 243 biopsies) from Quaker parrots was performed by recording the final pathological diagnoses, age, and sex for each bird. The prevalence of lesions associated with lipid metabolism, such as hepatic lipidosis, atherosclerosis, xanthomas, adipose tumors, coelomic steatitis/steatonecrosis, endogenous lipid pneumonia, and acute pancreatic necrosis/pancreatitis, was reported. Multiple logistic regression models were used to characterize the effects of sex and age on these lesions, and the prevalence of hepatic lipidosis and atherosclerosis was compared to those in a random sample of control psittacine birds. The raw prevalence of atherosclerosis and hepatic lipidosis was 5.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.4%-7.8%) and 21.2% (95% CI, 17.2%-25.1%), respectively. While the prevalence of atherosclerosis was similar to other psittacine species, hepatic lipidosis was more common in Quaker parrots. Quaker parrots also showed a unique susceptibility to acute pancreatic necrosis with a prevalence of 12.9% (95% CI, 9.7%-16.1%). Male parrots were found to be more susceptible than females to lipid accumulation lesions ( P = .0024), including atherosclerosis ( P = .018) and hepatic lipidosis ( P < .001). This retrospective study confirms the high susceptibility of Quaker parrots to lipid-related disorders and presents epidemiological data that may be useful to avian clinicians, pathologists, and researchers using Quaker parrots.

Psittacines pseudomonosis

The taxonomy of Psittaciformes order classifies families such as Loriinae (lory parrots or false parrots), Cacatuidae (parrots with crest and nymphs) and Psittacidae (true parrots and parrakeets). The ever-increasing desire to obtain specimens with plumage and especially with a spectacular chromatics lead in many cases to the reproduction by repeated inbreds and in very close kinship (even repetitive generations of mother-son or father-daughter matings), causing secondary changes in the metabolism and immune system of the obtained birds, characteristics transmitted to the next generations. The breeding conditions are not always correlated with the needs of these species, in many cases the knowledge about the eco-biology of captive-grown psittacins being rather poor, which leads to an increase in their sensitivity. In recent years, we are confronted in the clinic of these species with extremely diverse pathologies or metabolic changes that have never been described or even observed in wild parrots. Among the psittacines’ bacterioses, the pseudomonosis is an important disease because of its increasing frequency of diagnosis, in both owners and professional breeders. One particular feature is the sensitivity that many psittacine species exhibit both to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas fluorescens. The two bacterial species (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas fluorescens) exhibit resistance to the action of many antibiotics and have the ability to synthesize numerous substances present in the cell structure, toxins and many other factors that interfere with virulence. The disease appears as a well-defined clinical entity that evolves with dominant digestive disorders or sepsis. The faeces are green or with white urates on the edge, with a heavy or liquid consistency. In the association with Pseudomonas fluorescence, there are even found green-leek color and respiratory symptomatology. The diagnosis of Pseudomonas spp. infection in birds is based on the anatomoclinical data and is confirmed by bacteriological examination. The clinical diagnosis is difficult and is not very valuable. The septicemic forms of the disease are difficult to diagnose because, apart from disrupting the general condition, birds have no characteristic signs.

HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF CAPTIVE PSITTACINE SPECIES IN PRERELEASE PROGRAMS AT COSTA RICAN RESCUE CENTERS.

With stricter laws regulating the capture and possession of wild animals in Costa Rica, local wildlife-rescue centers have been overwhelmed by an influx of confiscated or relinquished illegal pets, specifically of psittacine species. As part of a nationwide health-assessment program targeting these centers, 122 birds representing five psittacine species ( Ara macao, Amazona autumnalis, Amazona auropalliata, Amazona farinosa, Aratinga finschi) and one hybrid macaw ( Ara macao × Ara ambiguus) were examined and tested between January 2011 and October 2012. Physical examination, hematology, and serum biochemical analyses were performed. Blood and feathers were tested for psittacine beak and feather disease virus (PBFDV) and avian polyomavirus (APV) via PCR. A DNA-based prevalence and sequence analysis characterized the strains of PBFDV and APV isolated. Physical abnormalities observed in 36% of the 122 birds examined were limited to thin body condition and poor feather quality. None of the feather abnormalities were characteristic of disease caused by either PBFDV or APV. Results of hematological and biochemical analyses were within normal limits except for five birds with leukocytosis and heterophilia, three birds with uric acid values above 16 mg/dl, and two additional birds with AST values above 400 IU/L. No hemoparasites were detected during blood smear examination. Overall prevalences of 9.8% (12/122) for PBFDV and 3.3% (4/122) for APV were documented, with only one bird testing positive for both PBFDV and APV. Birds from two of the eight centers were negative for both viruses. Findings from this study constitute the beginning of a standardized surveillance program for Costa Rican rescue centers, targeting the management of avian species enrolled in propagation and reintroduction programs and expanding of the spectrum of pathogen surveillance and husbandry recommendations in prerelease centers.

Parrots consume sodium‐rich palms in the sodium‐deprived landscape of the Western Amazon Basin

AbstractHerbivorous animals face shortages of different minerals in different geographic areas. In the Amazon Basin, sodium is often limiting, driving herbivores to seek supplemental sources. In the lowlands of the western Amazon Basin, parrots commonly consume sodium‐rich soils at clay licks but lick use varies widely among species, and to date, parrots in the region have not been reported consuming other supplemental sodium sources. We document 11 species of psittacines consuming sodium‐rich leaves and trunks ofAttalea butyraceapalms growing on sodium‐rich soils in lowland Peru. Consumed palms had more sodium and less potassium than uneatenA. butyraceapalms and other palm species in the area. AmongA. butyraceapalm parts, sodium and Na:K ratios were highest in trunks (consumed by parrots in 94% of the 387 foraging bouts recorded) and lowest in leaves (consumed in only 14% of foraging bouts). The low potassium and high Na:K ratio suggest that birds may be seeking not just any sodium sources, but those low in potassium, as potassium is known to exacerbate dietary sodium shortages. Use of the palms and species’ abundance in the study area were not correlated. Instead, parrot species that consumed palms the most were those that use relatively few traditional soil clay licks. This finding suggests that parrot species in the region have fundamental differences in preferred strategies for obtaining supplemental sodium and may help explain documented interspecific differences in geophagy.

Food availability and breeding season as predictors of geophagy in Amazonian parrots

Geophagy, the consumption of soil, is common in many species, but the drivers of geophagy are not well understood. The best‐studied example of avian geophagy is the parrots of the western Amazon Basin, but even here, there is debate over what drives the behaviour. There are two possible explanations: (1) extra nutritional demands of reproduction drive an increase in geophagy, which would predict that geophagy should be highest during the breeding season, and (2) consumption of naturally toxic plant foods increases the need for the toxin protection effects of soil, which would predict that geophagy should be highest when food availability is low and animals are forced to consume more toxic foods. We used long‐term data from lowland Amazonia to compare seasonal fluctuations in rainfall, food availability, parrot breeding and parrot geophagy, and conducted novel tests of these hypotheses. Our analyses of annual patterns suggested that seasonal changes in rainfall drive plant fruiting, the resulting food availability patterns drive the timing of parrot breeding, and breeding drives seasonal patterns of geophagy. Surprisingly, chicks of the largest psittacine species fledged as food supplies approach their annual lows, suggesting that future climatic changes that alter peaks in food availability could have unexpected impacts on the reproduction of large psittacines in this system. Our tests found no evidence to support the toxin‐protection hypothesis. Instead, we found that the peak of geophagy occurred during species’ breeding seasons, which strongly supports the supplemental nutrients hypothesis. Our findings join a growing body of biochemical, physiological, behavioural, ecological and biogeographical evidence suggesting that a need for sodium is driving soil consumption in this classic model system of avian geophagy.

Valores hematológicos de filhotes de papagaio-verdadeiro (Amazona aestiva) apreendidos do tráfico

The blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) is a psittacine species that suffers greatly from the illegal wildlife trade in Brazil, being subjected to severe stress during this process. In this study, hematologic values were determined to evaluate the general health condition of 27 A. aestiva nestlings seized from illegal trade and sent to the wildlife rehabilitation center of Campo Grande. Conventional techniques were performed for hematological analysis, and the following means were observed: red blood cell count, 2.3 x 10 6/µL; white blood cell count, 11.1 x 10 3/µL; heterophils, 6.6 x 10 3/µL; lymphocytes, 4.3 x 10 3/µL; eosinophils, 0; basophils, 0.1 x 10 3/µL; and monocytes, 0.1 x 10 3/µL. Heterophil:lymphocyte ratio was 1.6. These values support future clinical assessments on A. aestiva nestlings kept as pets or even in free-living conditions.

The Effect of Manual Restraint on Physiological Parameters in Barred Owls ( Strix varia ).

Manual restraint is commonly necessary when working with avian species in medical, laboratory, and field settings. Despite their prevalence, little is known about the stress response in raptorial bird species. To further understand the effect of restraint on the stress response in birds of prey, 12 barred owls ( Strix varia ) were manually restrained for 15 minutes. Physiological parameters (cloacal temperature, respiratory rate, heart rate) were followed over time and recorded at defined points during the restraint period. Heart rate decreased significantly over the restraint period by a mean ± SD of -73 ± 46 beats/min. Respiratory rate also decreased significantly (median: -11 breaths/min, interquartile range: -8 to -18). Cloacal temperature increased significantly over time in manually restrained owls (median: +1.5°C [+2.7°F], interquartile range: 1.3°C-2.1°C [2.3°F-3.8°F]). This study is the first to document stress hyperthermia in an owl species. Similar to another raptorial bird, the red-tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ), both heart rate and respiratory rate decreased and cloacal temperature increased over time in restrained barred owls. Barred owls appear to cope differently to restraint stress when compared to psittacine species.

Avian Pox in Native Captive Psittacines, Brazil, 2015.

To investigate an outbreak of avian pox in psittacines in a conservation facility, we examined 94 birds of 10 psittacine species, including sick and healthy birds. We found psittacine pox virus in 23 of 27 sick birds and 4 of 67 healthy birds. Further characterization is needed for these isolates.

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Wild Red-Tailed Amazon Parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) Nestlings With Abnormal Clinical Examination in Rasa Island, Brazil

The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is an endangered psittacine species, but little information is available about abnormal clinical findings and hematologic and biochemical values of this species, which are important for monitoring the health of this population. To determine hematologic and biochemical values for wild red-tailed parrot nestlings exhibiting abnormal clinical findings, 31 nestlings from the Rasa Island (Paraná State, Southern Brazil) were physically restrained for clinical examination and blood sample collection. On physical examination, 26 birds had mild abnormalities and 5 had severe disorders. Parrots were divided into 5 groups according to the following clinical findings: presence of ectoparasites (group 1), respiratory disorders (group 2), chronic skin lesions caused by fly larvae (group 3), beak disorders (group 4), and severe clinical signs (group 5). Abnormal hematologic and biochemical findings in the nestlings were high total protein in group 3; low values for hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration in group 4; low glucose concentration, high mean absolute heterophil count, and high heterophil : lymphocyte ratio in group 5; high concentrations of total plasma protein in groups 3 and 4; and high globulin concentration in groups 3 and 5. In general, the population assessed was in good condition. These results provide a guide to the expected clinical findings associated with hematologic and biochemical concentrations in a population of free-living parrots with abnormal clinical examination findings. The data support the conservation planning and health monitoring of the endangered red-tailed Amazon parrot.

Normal computed tomographic features and reference values for the coelomic cavity in pet parrots.

BackgroundThe increasing popularity gained by pet birds over recent decades has highlighted the role of avian medicine and surgery in the global veterinary scenario; such a need for speciality avian medical practice reflects the rising expectation for high-standard diagnostic imaging procedures. The aim of this study is to provide an atlas of matched anatomical cross-sections and contrast-enhanced CT images of the coelomic cavity in three highly diffused psittacine species.ResultsContrast-enhanced computed tomographic studies of the coelomic cavity were performed in 5 blue-and-gold macaws, 4 African grey parrots and 6 monk parakeets by means of a 4-multidetector-row CT scanner. Both pre- and post-contrast scans were acquired. Anatomical reference cross-sections were obtained from 5 blue-and-gold macaw, 7 African grey parrot, and 9 monk parakeet cadavers. The specimens were stored in a −20 °C freezer until completely frozen and then sliced at 5-mm intervals by means of a band saw. All the slices were photographed on both sides. Individual anatomical structures were identified by means of the available literature. Pre- and post-contrast attenuation reference values for the main coelomic organs are reported in Hounsfield units (HU).ConclusionsThe results provide an atlas of matched anatomical cross-sections and contrast-enhanced CT images of the coelomic cavity in three highly diffused psittacine species.

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON THE PLASMA LIPID PROFILE IN HISPANIOLAN AMAZON PARROTS (AMAZONA VENTRALIS) WITH NATURALLY OCCURRING HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA.

Hypercholesterolemia is common in psittacines, and Amazon parrots ( Amazona spp.) are particularly susceptible. Associations have been demonstrated between naturally occurring and experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in psittacines. Daily exercise improves lipid metabolism in humans and other mammals, as well as pigeons and chickens, under varying experimental conditions. Hispaniolan Amazon parrots ( Amazona ventralis ) with naturally occurring hypercholesterolemia (343-576 mg/dl) were divided into two groups. An exercised group (n = 8) was housed as a flock and exercised daily with 30 min of aviary flight and 30 min walking on a rotating perch. A sedentary control group (n = 4) was housed in individual cages with no exercise regime. A plasma lipid panel, including total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides, was validated for this species. Body weight, chest girth, and the lipid panel were measured at 0, 61, and 105 days. Hematology and plasma biochemistry were measured at 0 and 105 days. Weight and girth were significantly lower in exercised than sedentary parrots at 61 and 105 days. HDL-C concentrations were significantly higher in exercised parrots at 61 days but returned to near baseline by 105 days. There were no significant changes in hematology, biochemistry, or other lipid panel parameters. Results were similar to studies in humans and animal models, in which increased HDL-C was the most consistent effect of exercise on circulating lipid and lipoprotein parameters. The return toward baseline HDL-C may have resulted from decreased participation in aviary flight. Additional investigation will be required to determine the amount of exercise and change in circulating lipid-related parameters necessary to improve long-term wellness in psittacine species predisposed to hypercholesterolemia.

Detection and Phylogeny of Beak and Feather Disease Virus and Avian Polyomavirus in Psittacine Pet Birds in Turkey

Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) and avian polyomavirus (APV) infections cause various health problems in many psittacine species, and may ultimately cause death. The aims of this study were to investigate, for the first time, the presence of BFDV and APV in psittacine birds kept in Turkey by SYBR-Green real-time polymerase chain reaction (SYBR-Green real-time PCR) and to determine the phylogeny of any circulating strains. In this study, 62 samples consisting of feather samples from 35 Melopsittacus undulatus, 16 Psittacus erithacus, 5 Forpus coelestis, 4 Nymphicus hollandicus, 1 Agapornis roseicollis, and 1 Psephotus haematonotus were collected and analyzed for the presence of BFDV-DNA and APV-DNA using SYBR-Green real-time PCR. All birds had plumage defects and 50% were considered clinically depressed. BFDV-DNA and APV-DNA were detected in feather samples of 12 (19.3%) and 9 (14.5%) birds, respectively. Both BFDV-DNA and APV-DNA were detected in 23 (37%) feather samples, from which BFDV-Rep gene and APV-VP1 gene were partially sequenced and phylogenetic analyses were conducted. Birds suspected to be infected with BFDV and APV should be analyzed by real-time PCR for early diagnosis, and preventive measurements should be applied to reduce viral exposure to healthy birds. The results of this investigation indicate a high frequency of BFDV and APV infections in birds with plumage defects in Turkey. However, strains were similar to those previously reported in other areas of the world.

Beak and feather disease virus in wild and captive parrots: an analysis of geographic and taxonomic distribution and methodological trends.

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) has emerged in recent years as a major threat to wild parrot populations and is an increasing concern to aviculturists and managers of captive populations. Pathological and serological tests for screening for the presence of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) are a critical component of efforts to manage the disease and of epidemiological studies. Since the disease was first reported in the mid-1970s, screening for BFDV has been conducted in numerous wild and captive populations. However, at present, there is no current and readily accessible synthesis of screening efforts and their results. Here, we consolidate information collected from 83 PBFD- and BFDV-based publications on the primary screening methods being used and identify important knowledge gaps regarding potential global disease hotspots. We present trends in research intensity in this field and critically discuss advances in screening techniques and their applications to both aviculture and to the management of threatened wild populations. Finally, we provide an overview of estimates of BFDV prevalence in captive and wild flocks alongside a complete list of all psittacine species in which the virus has been confirmed. Our evaluation highlights the need for standardised diagnostic tests and more emphasis on studies of wild populations, particularly in view of the intrinsic connection between global trade in companion birds and the spread of novel BFDV strains into wild populations. Increased emphasis should be placed on the screening of captive and wild parrot populations within their countries of origin across the Americas, Africa and Asia.