Psilocybin-containing Mushrooms Research Articles

Phytochemical, Cytotoxicity, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Psilocybe Natalensis Magic Mushroom.

Psilocybin-containing mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms, have been used since ancient and recent times for depression and to improve quality of life. However, their anti-inflammatory properties are not known. The study aims at investing cytotoxicity; antioxidant; and, for the first time, anti-inflammatory effects of Psilocybe natalensis, a psilocybin-containing mushroom that grows in South Africa, on lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Macrophage cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide and treated with different concentrations of Psilocybe natalensis mushroom extracted with boiling hot water, cold water and ethanol over 24 h. Quercetin and N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester were used as positive controls. Effects of extracts on the lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, and cytokine activities were investigated. Phytochemical analysis, and the antioxidant and cytotoxicity of extracts, were determined. Results showed that the three extracts inhibited the lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, and interleukin 1β cytokine production significantly in a dose-dependent manner close to that of the positive controls. A study proposed that ethanol and water extracts of Psilocybe natalensis mushroom were safe at concentrations used, and have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Phytochemical analysis confirmed the presence of natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds in the mushroom extracts.

Persisting Reductions in Cannabis, Opioid, and Stimulant Misuse After Naturalistic Psychedelic Use: An Online Survey.

BackgroundObservational data and preliminary studies suggest serotonin 2A agonist psychedelics may hold potential in treating a variety of substance use disorders (SUDs), including opioid use disorder (OUD).AimsThe study aim was to describe and analyze self-reported cases in which naturalistic psychedelic use was followed by cessation or reduction in other substance use.MethodsAn anonymous online survey of individuals reporting cessation or reduction in cannabis, opioid, or stimulant use following psychedelic use in non-clinical settings.ResultsFour hundred forty-four respondents, mostly in the USA (67%) completed the survey. Participants reported 4.5 years of problematic substance use on average before the psychedelic experience to which they attributed a reduction in drug consumption, with 79% meeting retrospective criteria for severe SUD. Most reported taking a moderate or high dose of LSD (43%) or psilocybin-containing mushrooms (29%), followed by significant reduction in drug consumption. Before the psychedelic experience 96% met SUD criteria, whereas only 27% met SUD criteria afterward. Participants rated their psychedelic experience as highly meaningful and insightful, with 28% endorsing psychedelic-associated changes in life priorities or values as facilitating reduced substance misuse. Greater psychedelic dose, insight, mystical-type effects, and personal meaning of experiences were associated with greater reduction in drug consumption.ConclusionsWhile these cross-sectional and self-report methods cannot determine whether psychedelics caused changes in drug use, results suggest the potential that psychedelics cause reductions in problematic substance use, and support additional clinical research on psychedelic-assisted treatment for SUD.

Entheogens in Christian art: Wasson, Allegro, and the Psychedelic Gospels

In light of new historical evidence regarding ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson’s correspondence with art historian Erwin Panofsky, this article provides an in-depth analysis of the presence of entheogenic mushroom images in Christian art within the context of the controversy between Wasson and philologist John Marco Allegro over the identification of a Garden of Eden fresco in the 12th century Chapel of Plaincourault in France. It reveals a compelling financial motive for Wasson’s refusal to acknowledge that this fresco represents Amanita muscaria, as well as for Wasson’s reluctance to pursue his hypothesis regarding the entheogenic origins of religion into Christian art and artifacts. While Wasson’s view – that the presence of psychoactive mushrooms in the Near and Middle East ended around 1000 BCE – prevailed and stymied research on entheogens in Christianity for decades, a new generation of 21st century researchers has documented growing evidence of A. muscaria and psilocybin-containing mushrooms in Christian art, consistent with ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini’s typology of mushroom trees. This article presents original photographs, taken during fieldwork at churches and cathedrals throughout Europe and the Middle East, that confirm the presence of entheogenic mushrooms in Christian art: in frescoes, illuminated manuscripts, mosaics, sculptures, and stained glass windows. Based on this iconic evidence, the article proposes a psychedelic gospels theory and addresses critiques of this theory by art historians, ardent advocates, medieval historians, and conservative Catholics. It calls for the establishment of an Interdisciplinary Committee on the Psychedelic Gospels to independently evaluate the growing body of evidence of entheogenic mushrooms in Christian art in order to resolve a controversial question regarding the possible role of entheogens in the history and origins of Christianity.

Psychedelic microdosing benefits and challenges: an empirical codebook

BackgroundMicrodosing psychedelics is the practice of consuming very low, sub-hallucinogenic doses of a psychedelic substance, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reports, microdosing has grown in popularity, yet the scientific literature contains minimal research on this practice. There has been limited reporting on adverse events associated with microdosing, and the experiences of microdosers in community samples have not been categorized.MethodsIn the present study, we develop a codebook of microdosing benefits and challenges (MDBC) based on the qualitative reports of a real-world sample of 278 microdosers.ResultsWe describe novel findings, both in terms of beneficial outcomes, such as improved mood (26.6%) and focus (14.8%), and in terms of challenging outcomes, such as physiological discomfort (18.0%) and increased anxiety (6.7%). We also show parallels between benefits and drawbacks and discuss the implications of these results. We probe for substance-dependent differences, finding that psilocybin-only users report the benefits of microdosing were more important than other users report.ConclusionsThese mixed-methods results help summarize and frame the experiences reported by an active microdosing community as high-potential avenues for future scientific research. The MDBC taxonomy reported here informs future research, leveraging participant reports to distil the highest-potential intervention targets so research funding can be efficiently allocated. Microdosing research complements the full-dose literature as clinical treatments are developed and neuropharmacological mechanisms are sought. This framework aims to inform researchers and clinicians as experimental microdosing research begins in earnest in the years to come.

Qualitative and Quantitative Features of Music Reported to Support Peak Mystical Experiences during Psychedelic Therapy Sessions.

Psilocybin is a classic (serotonergic) hallucinogen (“psychedelic” drug) that may occasion mystical experiences (characterized by a profound feeling of oneness or unity) during acute effects. Such experiences may have therapeutic value. Research and clinical applications of psychedelics usually include music listening during acute drug effects, based on the expectation that music will provide psychological support during the acute effects of psychedelic drugs, and may even facilitate the occurrence of mystical experiences. However, the features of music chosen to support the different phases of drug effects are not well-specified. As a result, there is currently neither real guidance for the selection of music nor standardization of the music used to support clinical trials with psychedelic drugs across various research groups or therapists. A description of the features of music found to be supportive of mystical experience will allow for the standardization and optimization of the delivery of psychedelic drugs in both research trials and therapeutic contexts. To this end, we conducted an anonymous survey of individuals with extensive experience administering psilocybin or psilocybin-containing mushrooms under research or therapeutic conditions, in order to identify the features of commonly used musical selections that have been found by therapists and research staff to be supportive of mystical experiences within a psilocybin session. Ten respondents yielded 24 unique recommendations of musical stimuli supportive of peak effects with psilocybin, and 24 unique recommendations of musical stimuli supportive of the period leading up to a peak experience. Qualitative analysis (expert rating of musical and music-theoretic features of the recommended stimuli) and quantitative analysis (using signal processing and music-information retrieval methods) of 22 of these stimuli yielded a description of peak period music that was characterized by regular, predictable, formulaic phrase structure and orchestration, a feeling of continuous movement and forward motion that slowly builds over time, and lower perceptual brightness when compared to pre peak music. These results provide a description of music that may be optimally supportive of peak psychedelic experiences. This description can be used to guide the selection and composition of music for future psychedelic research and therapy sessions.

Trends in Abuse of Biogenic Drugs in Parts of Germany 2007-2013

Based on an abundance of information on the internet, psychotropic plants and mushrooms are of increasing relevance as legal and cheap alternatives to other illicit drugs. Due to the lack of a German database, the abuse of selected biogenic drugs using reported exposures to 3 German Poison Information Centres (PICs) was examined. Information on abuse of biogenic drugs was collected from the German PICs in Berlin, Erfurt and Fribourg (2007-2013). 602 drug abuses were reported to the selected PICs. 52% reported consumption of tropane alkaloid-containing plants (Angel's trumpet, Thorn apple, Belladonna), 25% of psilocybin-containing mushrooms and 10% of nutmeg. Angel's trumpet was identified as the most abused plant. Consumers of tropane alkaloid-containing plants were mainly adolescents, whereas the majority of the abusers of psilocybin-containing mushrooms and nutmeg were rather young grown-ups and school children, respectively. A preponderance of moderate and severe effects (55%) could be noticed for exposures to tropane alkaloid-containing plants. More than 90% of suspected cases of tropane alkaloid-containing as well as psilocybin-containing plants abuse resulted in the treatment recommendation 'surveillance in hospital'. Mydriasis, hallucinations, tachycardia and agitation were the main symptoms after the abuse of biogenic drugs. The data from the PICs suggest abuse of biogenic drugs in parts of Germany. A decreasing trend is observed, probably caused by the competition with new synthetic designer drugs. The results underline the dominance of Angel's trumpet in the abuse of biogenic drugs and emphasize the importance of easy accessibility for the abuse of biogenic drugs. Unexpectedly, the number of nutmeg abuse cases increased during the investigated period.

A Phenomenological Examination of Psilocybin and its Positive and Persisting Aftereffects

This study is an examination of the positive and persisting psychological and behavioral aftereffects in eight individuals who reported consumption of psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Mushrooms containing psilocybin have been used for healing and spiritual purposes for thousands of years, and the therapeutic applications of psilocybin were scientifically examined beginning in the mid-20th century. Research from this era suggested that psilocybin was indicated as an effective adjunct to psychotherapy for conditions such as depression, anxiety, chemical dependency, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Recent research at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine demonstrated that participants who consumed psilocybin reported having profoundly meaningful experiences, and that these participants experienced persisting and positive changes to their mood, attitude, and behavior at 1-month and 14-month follow up. However, there has not yet been ample research examining the mechanism of the connection between participants’ experience with psilocybin and the existence of these positive and persisting aftereffects. This study employed a phenomenological approach, using an unstructured interview to gain an understanding of participants’ description of this mechanism. Eight adults were interviewed who reported using psilocybin in the past. A within-case analysis and cross-case analysis were conducted on the data, producing 11 themes within three categories: Set (which included the themes of Preliminary Anxiety and Substantial Preparation); Experience of Psilocybin Effect (which included the themes of Profound Shift in Attention, Unity Consciousness, Increased Introspection, Positive Emotional State, and Transcendental Experience); and Persisting Aftereffects (which included the themes of Short Term Reduction in Anxiety, Persisting Insight, Assistance with Psychological Distress, and Inspired Behavioral Change). Participants maintained insights gained during their experience of psilocybin far beyond the course of the substance. This research suggests that the positive and persisting aftereffects related to the consumption of psilocybin may be useful for psychological healing and growth, and that these aftereffects should continue to be studied.

Alcohol and drug use among patients of HIV services in Hanoi, Vietnam

Aims: The Mystical Experiences Questionnaire (MEQ) was previously developed to evaluate discrete mystical-type experiences occasioned by the classic hallucinogen psilocybin. The 30-item revised MEQ (MEQ30) was previously psychometrically validated through factor analysis of retrospective accounts of profound experiences with psilocybin-containing mushrooms. We psychometrically validated the MEQ30 using data from experimental laboratory studies with controlled doses of psilocybin. Methods: We applied confirmatory factor analysis to MEQ30 responses provided immediately after moderate/high oral psilocybin dose (≥20mg/70kg) sessions (n=184) from five laboratory experiments. We used structural equation modeling to regress MEQ30 factor scores on the rated intensity of drug effects and ratings provided 3–8 weeks post-session of persisting effects attributed to the moderate to high dose psilocybin session. Results: Confirmatory factor analyses support the reliability and internal validity of the MEQ30. Structural equation models demonstrate the external and convergent validity of the MEQ30 by showing that latent variable scores on the MEQ30 positively predict persisting change in attitudes, behavior, and well-being attributed to experiences with psilocybin while controlling for the contribution of the participant-rated intensity of drug effects. Conclusions: Validation of the MEQ30 in experimental data constitutes an important step in developing this questionnaire instrument for use in pharmacological studies of mysticaltype experiences. Further experimental work should validate the MEQ30 in studies of mystical-type experiences encountered through other means. On the basis of our findings, we recommend use of the MEQ30 for future investigations of individual episodes of mystical-type experiences. Financial support: NIH T32DA007209, R01DA003889, the Heffter Research Institute, and the Council on Spiritual Practices.

Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin.

The 30-item revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30) was previously developed within an online survey of mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin-containing mushrooms. The rated experiences occurred on average eight years before completion of the questionnaire. The current paper validates the MEQ30 using data from experimental studies with controlled doses of psilocybin. Data were pooled and analyzed from five laboratory experiments in which participants (n=184) received a moderate to high oral dose of psilocybin (at least 20 mg/70 kg). Results of confirmatory factor analysis demonstrate the reliability and internal validity of the MEQ30. Structural equation models demonstrate the external and convergent validity of the MEQ30 by showing that latent variable scores on the MEQ30 positively predict persisting change in attitudes, behavior, and well-being attributed to experiences with psilocybin while controlling for the contribution of the participant-rated intensity of drug effects. These findings support the use of the MEQ30 as an efficient measure of individual mystical experiences. A method to score a "complete mystical experience" that was used in previous versions of the mystical experience questionnaire is validated in the MEQ30, and a stand-alone version of the MEQ30 is provided for use in future research.

Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers

BackgroundPsilocybin is a well-characterized classic hallucinogen (psychedelic) with a long history of religious use by indigenous cultures, and nonmedical use in modern societies. Although psilocybin is structurally related to migraine medications, and case studies suggest that psilocybin may be efficacious in treatment of cluster headache, little is known about the relationship between psilocybin and headache. MethodsThis double-blind study examined a broad range of psilocybin doses (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30mg/70kg) on headache in 18 healthy participants. ResultsPsilocybin frequently caused headache, the incidence, duration, and severity of which increased in a dose-dependent manner. All headaches had delayed onset, were transient, and lasted no more than a day after psilocybin administration. ConclusionsPossible mechanisms for these observations are discussed, and include induction of delayed headache through nitric oxide release. These data suggest that headache is an adverse event to be expected with the nonmedical use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well as the administration of psilocybin in human research. Headaches were neither severe nor disabling, and should not present a barrier to future psilocybin research.

Pilzvergiftungen – die Schattenseiten des Myzetismus

Most mushroom intoxications become evident within 12 hours with vomiting and diarrhea. They can be divided into incidents with a short latency (less than four hours) and incidents with a long latency (longer than four hours). As a rule of thumb amatoxin poisonings must be considered in case of symptoms appearing with a long latency (8-12-18 h), especially after consumption of non-controlled wild mushrooms. Shorter latencies do not exclude amatoxin poisoning. Large meals of mushrooms, which are rich in chitin, mixed meals and individual factors, may shorten latency and disguise amatoxin poisoning. Any vomiting and diarrhea after mushroom consumption is suspicious. Unless the mushrooms are not to be identified within 30 minutes by an expert, specific treatment for amatoxin poisoning must be started. Identification shall be achieved by macroscopic or microscopic means; and urine analysis for amatoxins are crucial. By commencing treatment before analysis, mortality rates may be as low as 5%. Current standards in amatoxin poisoning treatment can be obtained at the Swiss Toxicological Information Centre (Phone 145), where contacts to mycologists are available as well. Emergency mycologists are listed on the website www.vapko.ch. Of the 18 different syndromes we present the most common and most important in Switzerland. In an overview all of them are listed. Early gastrointestinal syndrome with its short latency of less than 4 h and indigestion with a very variable latency are the most common. Psychotropic symptoms after consumptions of fly agaric and panther cap are rare, in case of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, symptoms are frequent, but hardly ever lead to medical treatment. In case of renal failure and rhabdomyolysis of unknown origin, completing a patient's history by questioning nutritional habits might reveal causal relationship with ingestion of orellanin-containing mushrooms or tricholoma equestre respectively. Mushrooms in the backyard are attractive for children. We discuss possible approaches.

Ethnopharmacology of ska María Pastora ( Salvia divinorum, Epling AND Játiva-M.)

Salvia divinorum is a perennial labiate used for curing and divination by the Mazatec Indians of Oaxaca, Mexico. The psych otropic effects the plant produces are compared to those of the other hallucinogens employed by the Mazatecs, the morning glory, Riuea corymbosa L., Hallier f. and the psilocybin-containing mushrooms. A discussion of the role of ska María Pastora in the native “pharmacopeia” is based on previous reports and fieldwork by the authors, with a Mazatec shaman.