Prototype Battery Research Articles

A Novel Poly(vinyl alcohol)-tetraethylorthosilicate Hybrid Gel Electrolyte for Lead Storage Battery.

The gel electrolyte significantly influences gel valve-regulated lead acid battery performance. To address this, the paper describes the preparation of novel polymer gel electrolytes using poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) for valve-regulated lead-acid batteries. FTIR technique is used to confirm the chemical reaction between PVA and TEOS. Electrochemical analyses such as cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were applied to optimize the concentration of PVA-TEOS polymer gel electrolyte. The optimum concentration of polymer gel electrolyte was determined as 20 wt% of TEOS in PVA (PE-1) with higher anodic peak and lower Rs and Rct values. The Galvanostatic charge-discharge tests were performed on the optimized gel system prototype battery. The highest capacity of 6.86 × 10-5 Ah at a current density of 0.2 mA cm-2 was achieved with an excellent capacity retention ratio of 85.7% over 500 cycles. The exceptional cycle performance and high capacity make PVA-TEOS gel electrolyte a promising candidate for practical battery application.

PILOT STUDY OF MODIFIED ROTATING ARM IMPACTOR FOR USE IN AEROBIOLOGICAL STUDIES

<h3>Introduction</h3> Utilized in aerobiological studies, the Rotarod Sampler (IQVIA) remains the gold standard in determining volumetric ambient airborne pollen concentration. However, utilization comes at the cost of high energy consumption, start-up and maintenance fees, and variable air patterns generated by rotating I-rods. We present a prototype to address the aforementioned issues: a battery-powered rotating arm impactor utilizing slides as opposed to rods. <h3>Methods</h3> The Rotorod Sampler Model 40 and prototype were situated in the same area and height, equipped with two rods and two slides coated with silicone grease, respectively. 7 atmospheric samples were collected and counted at various intervals over an 18-day period in June 2022, and directly compared. <h3>Results</h3> The prototype was created using 3D printing, with a 24 × 24 -millimeter exposure of each slide for sample collection. The prototype's speed was set at 10 revolutions per minute (RPM), while the Rotarod Sampler was set at 2400 rpm and utilized standard 31 × 1-millimeter sampler rods. Prototype battery needed to be replaced on days 2 and 18, and consequently may have impacted results. Mean pollen count and standard deviation of Rotarod Sampler was 124.2 and 40, and 23.4 and 10.6 for the prototype. The correlation coefficient was 0.61, signifying moderate positive association between pollen counts obtained from the Rotarod Sampler and prototype. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Though our prototype has a larger surface area, it collected significantly less pollen than the Rotarod Sampler. A moderate correlation between the two devices was observed, though increases in the RPM of the prototype should be considered for future evaluation.

The effect of porosity of activated carbon cloth cathodes on the cyclic performance of Li–S cells

Binder-free carbon cloth (CC) cathodes with tunable porosity prepared from Kynol 1500 by CO2 activation at 900 °C with the specific surface area up to 3170 m2g-1 and pore volume up to 2.05 cc g−1 have been tested in Li–S battery prototypes with catholyte solutions containing Li2S8. The capacity of CCs normalized to carbon mass is linearly proportional to the surface area and pore volume values. Capacities of CC cathodes were compared to the capacity of a composite mesoporous carbon (MPC) cathode prepared from MPC powder with PVdF binder and tested in identical conditions as sulfur host. The results indicate that pore volume of the carbon hosts is a key factor which determines the capacity of Li–S cells with lithium polysulfide catholyte solution. The effect of the surface area and pore volume of carbon cathodes on capacity and cycling performance is discussed. The possibility of attaining of a practical level of the areal capacity of 3.4 mAh cm−2 is demonstrated for the activated CC with maximal pore volume. SEM analysis of CC cathodes after prolonged cycling reveals signs of degradation of the carbon fibers' structure. The results of XPS analysis of the surface of the cycled Li anodes is discussed.

High-precision robust monitoring of charge/discharge current over a wide dynamic range for electric vehicle batteries using diamond quantum sensors

Accurate prediction of the remaining driving range of electric vehicles is difficult because the state-of-the-art sensors for measuring battery current are not accurate enough to estimate the state of charge. This is because the battery current of EVs can reach a maximum of several hundred amperes while the average current is only approximately 10 A, and ordinary sensors do not have an accuracy of several tens of milliamperes while maintaining a dynamic range of several hundred amperes. Therefore, the state of charge has to be estimated with an ambiguity of approximately 10%, which makes the battery usage inefficient. This study resolves this limitation by developing a diamond quantum sensor with an inherently wide dynamic range and high sensitivity for measuring the battery current. The design uses the differential detection of two sensors to eliminate in-vehicle common-mode environmental noise, and a mixed analog–digital control to trace the magnetic resonance microwave frequencies of the quantum sensor without deviation over a wide dynamic range. The prototype battery monitor was fabricated and tested. The battery module current was measured up to 130 A covering WLTC driving pattern, and the accuracy of the current sensor to estimate battery state of charge was analyzed to be 10 mA, which will lead to 0.2% CO2 reduction emitted in the 2030 WW transportation field. Moreover, an operating temperature range of − 40 to + 85 °C and a maximum current dynamic range of ± 1000 A were confirmed.

Influence of Salt Anions on the Reactivity of Polymer Electrolytes in All-Solid-State Sodium Batteries

Solid-state batteries have received renewed attention in recent years. The present study compares all-solid-state sodium batteries containing sodium metal anodes, NaTi2(PO4)3 (NTP) cathodes and PEO polymer electrolyte (PE) with two salts—NaPF6 and NaClO4. Electrochemical properties were determined by means of both AC and DC measurements. For fresh symmetric cells, it seems like using NaClO4 as the salt leads to a lower interfacial resistance, but during contact with Na anodes, PEO:NaClO4 PE produces an unstable interface whereas PEO-NaPF6 forms a stable interface upon contact with sodium anodes. Battery prototypes with PEO:NaClO4 showed a better performance than those using PEO:NaPF6 in terms of specific capacity and energy content, as NaPF6 produces HF by-product which impairs the performance of full cells. However, the use of composite solid electrolyte containing PEO:NaPF6 and TiO2 nanotubes alleviates detrimental effects of HF and thus enables a better performance of SS Na battery prototypes. This is probably due to the titania particles acting as a scavenger of HF, an inevitable contaminant in electrolyte systems containing PF6 − anions. On adding TiO2 to polymer electrolytes, of both salts, the performance improves, what means that the TiO2 has several positive effects in these systems.

Decoupled aqueous batteries using pH-decoupling electrolytes.

Aqueous batteries have been considered as the most promising alternatives to the dominant lithium-based battery technologies because of their low cost, abundant resources and high safety. The output voltage of aqueous batteries is limited by the narrow stable voltage window of 1.23 V for water, which theoretically impedes further improvement of their energy density. However, the pH-decoupling electrolyte with an acidic catholyte and an alkaline anolyte has been verified to broaden the operating voltage window of the aqueous electrolyte to over 3 V, which goes beyond the voltage limitations of the aqueous batteries, making high-energy aqueous batteries possible. In this Review, we summarize the latest decoupled aqueous batteries based on pH-decoupling electrolytes from the perspective of ion-selective membranes, competitive redox couples and potential battery prototypes. The inherent defects and problems of these decoupled aqueous batteries are systematically analysed, and the critical scientific issues of this battery technology for future applications are discussed.

Study on Electrical Characteristics of Flexible Textile Aluminium-Air Battery/Wetness Sensor and their Applications

The field of smart textiles has been steadily growing throughout the last decades. Wearables and garments with integrated electronics being one of the major sections of this area. One of the components that virtually any such product has is a power source. This paper focuses on one such option, which employs only non-toxic materials, which can be safely used in close proximity to human body. The paper builds on previously developed flexible textile aluminium-air battery prototype. New electrical measurements are provided, which show possibilities and limitations of the developed primary battery, as well as niches, where it can be used. This paper focuses on testing the battery in real-world application conditions, by repeatedly activating and deactivating it for short periods of time in order to test its useful life period. From that point useful practical applications can be determined, which take into account limitations of the battery. The measurements show that the battery is best suited for use in emergency and alarm systems, where the system is activated for relatively short period of time in order to change system’s state or transmit an alarm message. Some examples are smart diapers with smart monitoring capabilities and anti-drowning safety bracelets.

K3SbS4 as a Potassium Superionic Conductor with Low Activation Energy for K–S Batteries

AbstractSolid‐state K‐ion conducting electrolytes are key elements to address the current problems in K secondary batteries. Here, we report a sulfide‐based K‐ion conductor K3SbS4 with a low‐activation energy of 0.27 eV. W‐doped K3−xSb1−xWxS4 (x=0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10 and 0.12) compounds were also explored for increasing vacancy concentrations and improving ionic conductivity. Among them, K2.92Sb0.92W0.08S4 exhibits the highest conductivity of 1.4×10−4 S cm−1 at 40 °C, which is among the best reported potassium‐ion conductors at ambient temperature. In addition, K2.92Sb0.92W0.08S4 is electrochemically stable with long‐chained potassium polysulfide of K2Sx. A room‐temperature solid potassium–sulfur (K−S) battery system has therefore been successfully demonstrated, which is the first K−S battery prototype using non‐commercial inorganic‐based electrolyte to block the polysulfide shuttle.

K3 SbS4 as a Potassium Superionic Conductor with Low Activation Energy for K-S Batteries.

Solid‐state K‐ion conducting electrolytes are key elements to address the current problems in K secondary batteries. Here, we report a sulfide‐based K‐ion conductor K3SbS4 with a low‐activation energy of 0.27 eV. W‐doped K3−x Sb1−x W x S4 (x=0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10 and 0.12) compounds were also explored for increasing vacancy concentrations and improving ionic conductivity. Among them, K2.92Sb0.92W0.08S4 exhibits the highest conductivity of 1.4×10−4 S cm−1 at 40 °C, which is among the best reported potassium‐ion conductors at ambient temperature. In addition, K2.92Sb0.92W0.08S4 is electrochemically stable with long‐chained potassium polysulfide of K2S x . A room‐temperature solid potassium–sulfur (K−S) battery system has therefore been successfully demonstrated, which is the first K−S battery prototype using non‐commercial inorganic‐based electrolyte to block the polysulfide shuttle.

Beyond conventional sodium-ion storage mechanisms: a combinational intercalation/conversion reaction mechanism in Ni-ion modified hydrated vanadate for high-rate sodium-ion storage

Exploration of advanced anode materials remains a great challenge in further promoting the performance of sodium-ion batteries. From the perspective of Na+ storage mechanisms, conversion/alloying-type anode materials typically offer high Na+ storage capacities, whereas the volume expansion during operation gives rise to unsatisfactory cycling stability. Intercalation-type anode materials with appropriate crystallographic structures have been identified to deliver decent cycling and rate performances. However, the deformations that the structures can withstand, as well as the limited numbers of available vacant sites in the crystal structures, significantly constrains the Na+ storage capacity. Herein, breaking from the conventional Na+ storage mechanisms, we reveal for the first time the combinational intercalation/conversion reaction mechanism upon Na+ storage in the Ni-ion modified hydrated vanadate (Ni0.24V2O5·nH2O). Based on in-situ/ex-situ characterizations and theoretical analysis, the conversion reaction of the interlayer Ni3+ is found to be triggered after the Na+ intercalation process, which not only contributes to high specific capacities but also leads to fast and stable solid-state Na+ diffusion. Paring Ni0.24V2O5·nH2O with a Zn/Mg dual-doped P2-Na0.67MnO2 cathode material, a high-performance Na-ion battery prototype full cell is fabricated. The unconventional Na-ion storage mechanism that endows the anode material with both high capacity and outstanding cyclic and rate performances has implications for further boosting the comprehensive performance of sodium-ion batteries.

SYNTHESIS AND ELECTROCHEMICAL HYDROGENATION OF Tb2Co17-х-ySbxLiy AND Tb2Co17-х-yAlxMgy PHASES

Metal hydride batteries have a high sorption ability to the reverse hydrogen absorption, moderate pressure and temperature of the processes of hydrogen sorption-desorption and stability to cycling. We synthesized doped derivatives of binary intermetallic compound consisting terbium with cobalt to establish electrochemical properties when using them as anode materials in prototypes of nickel metal hydride batteries. The samples were made of high purity metals in an electric arc furnace in an argon atmosphere. Phase analysis was performed using X-ray diffraction data obtained on the DRON-2.0M powder diffractometer (Fe Kα-radiation). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) were used to determine the quantitative and qualitative composition of the alloys. Electrochemical hydrogenation was performed in Swagelok cell two-electrode prototypes of chemical sources of electric current on a two-channel MTech G410-2 galvanostat in galvanostatic mode at a current density of 1.0 mA/cm2. The elemental composition of the Tb2Co16.5Sb0.2Li0.3 and Tb2Co16Al0.5Mg0.5 samples before and after hydrogenation was determined by the XRF method, a slight decrease in the content of terbium on the surface was found. Phase analysis of diffractograms of both samples before and after electrochemical hydrogenation showed that they contain hexagonal phases with a stoichiometry of 2:17. Only a phase with a structure of the Th2Ni17 type was found in the Tb2Co16.5Sb0.2Li0.3 alloy. In the Tb2Co16Al0.5Mg0.5 sample, in addition to the main phase with Th2Ni17 structure, the existence of another hexagonal phase with a similar crystal structure (TbCo5-x-yMgxAly) was detected. The results of X-ray diffraction of the Tb2Co16Al0.5Mg0.5 sample are fully consistent with the results of EDX analysis. The Tb2Co16.5Sb0.2Li0.3-based electrode undergoes significant amorphization due to the active hydrogenation/dehydrogenation process, but the hydrogen absorption properties remain acceptable. The cell parameters after hydrogenation increase, which indicates the inclusion of hydrogen atoms into the structure. The amount of deintercalated Hydrogen under experimental conditions is approximately 0.40 H/f.u. The Coulomb efficiency on the 10th cycle is equal to 81.3%, and on the 20th cycle is 90.2%. The Ni-MH battery prototype with the Tb2Co16Al0.5Mg0.5-based electrode demonstrates good reproducibility and Coulomb efficiency. The amount of deintercalated Hydrogen under experimental conditions is approximately 0.44 H/f.u. The Coulomb efficiency on the 10th cycle is 95.5%, and on the 20th is equal to 93.4%. Due to the amorphization processes as the number of cycles increases, the charging plateau voltage increases and a small decrease in the capacitive parameter τ is observed similarly to the Li,Sb-containing electrode. As electrode materials both alloys showed corrosion resistance in the electrolyte solution. Keywords: terbium; cobalt; solid solutions; crystal structure; electrochemical hydrogenation; anode materials.

An anodeless, mechanically flexible and energy/power dense sodium battery prototype

An enabling anode-less sodium metal battery design was proposed by encapsulating various zinc-containing multialloys (from ternary to medium/high entropy alloys) within the interweaved carbon nanotubes as the lightweight, mechanical-flexible Na deposition substrates.

Boron Hydrogen Compounds: Hydrogen Storage and Battery Applications.

About 25 years ago, Bogdanovic and Schwickardi (B. Bogdanovic, M. Schwickardi: J. Alloys Compd. 1–9, 253 (1997) discovered the catalyzed release of hydrogen from NaAlH4. This discovery stimulated a vast research effort on light hydrides as hydrogen storage materials, in particular boron hydrogen compounds. Mg(BH4)2, with a hydrogen content of 14.9 wt %, has been extensively studied, and recent results shed new light on intermediate species formed during dehydrogenation. The chemistry of B3H8−, which is an important intermediate between BH4− and B12H122−, is presented in detail. The discovery of high ionic conductivity in the high-temperature phases of LiBH4 and Na2B12H12 opened a new research direction. The high chemical and electrochemical stability of closo-hydroborates has stimulated new research for their applications in batteries. Very recently, an all-solid-state 4 V Na battery prototype using a Na4(CB11H12)2(B12H12) solid electrolyte has been demonstrated. In this review, we present the current knowledge of possible reaction pathways involved in the successive hydrogen release reactions from BH4− to B12H122−, and a discussion of relevant necessary properties for high-ionic-conduction materials.

Development of a Liquid Immersion-Type Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Under High-Pressure

A nickel-metal hydride (Ni–MH) prototype battery completely immersed in an aqueous electrolyte solution of KOH under high-pressure was fabricated to examine the effects of high-pressure on the quality of Ni–MH batteries. The small battery cell comprised positive and negative electrode materials, as used in electric vehicles, and an Ag/AgO reference electrode. The electric capacity of the Ni–MH battery was measured at different temperatures and pressures with small currents and charge/discharge voltages of 1.6–1.0 V. High-pressure was found to clearly and effectively enhance the electric capacity of the Ni–MH battery at larger currents. The considerable effect of high-pressure on the Ni–MH battery was elucidated by the change in internal resistance during the charge/discharge cycle life experiment, indicating that the voltage of the positive electrode did not appreciably change under high-pressure compared to that of the negative electrode. Moreover, the use of large currents in rapid charge/discharge cycle tests at high pressures of up to 30 MPa resulted in charge/discharge cycles that were five times faster and a quick recovery of capacity was achieved in the 0.5–2.1 V range.

Subnano-sized silicon anode via crystal growth inhibition mechanism and its application in a prototype battery pack

Subnano-sized silicon anode via crystal growth inhibition mechanism and its application in a prototype battery pack

Current progresses and future prospects on aluminium–air batteries

ABSTRACT Metal–air batteries have been considered as promising battery prototypes due to their high specific capacity, energy density and easily available nature of air. Al can be regarded as an attractive candidate because of its abundant reserve (the most abundant metal element in the earth's crust), low price (1.9 USD·kg–1), high theoretical capacity density of 2.98 Ah·g−1 and high energy density of 8.1 Wh·g−1. For meeting the level of commercialization, nevertheless, there are still many scientific and technical challenges to overcome in the Al–air batteries. In this review, a comprehensive overview of Al–air batteries is initially provided, along with highlighting recent progresses in high-performance Al anodes, advanced air cathodes and improved electrolytes for Al–air batteries. The analysis and discussion on the progresses and challenges for Al–air batteries here are expected to provide a meaningful guide for future efforts to boost Al–air batteries.

NMC811 Carbon Core Shell Materials for High-Performance 18650 Ni-Rich Li-Ion Batteries

Rechargeable Li-ion batteries (LIB) have been extensively studied and become one of the essential energy storage devices for many applications, especially for electric vehicles (EVs). To date, Ni-rich materials such as lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNixMnyCo1-x-yO2; x ≥ 0.6) are believed to be the next-generation cathodes due to their low-cost, high capacity, and high operating voltage.2-4 However, the practical application of these materials has not yet been fully developed because of many intrinsic drawbacks. Herein, a surface coating approach using a green scalable solvent-free mechanofusion process is introduced to prepare an infusing thin layer carbon nanosphere shell to improve the intrinsic drawbacks of NMC811 including poor electrical conductivity, Li+/Ni2+ cation mixing, parasitic reactions with electrolytes, and micro-crack formation. The in operando XRD measurement confirms the fast and uniform phase transition with low Li diffusion/kinetics hindrance. The structural integrity of NMC811cs is not affected by the abrupt shrinkage in c-axis as it shows better cycling stability compared to the pristine NMC811 with less variation in c-direction. The formation of CO2 and H2 at high SOC over 4.0 V can also be minimized as observed by online DEMS. Finally, the practical application of the NMC811cs is demonstrated by the 18650 battery prototype which shows higher specific capacity and energy as well as excellent cycling stability compared to the pristine NMC811. This work provides both fundamental understanding and economical strategy towards highly stable and practical high-energy Li-ion batteries.

Paper-based aqueous Al ion battery with water-in-salt electrolyte

Low-cost, flexible and safe battery technology is the key to the widespread usage of wearable electronics, among which the aqueous Al ion battery with water-in-salt electrolyte is a promising candidate. In this work, a flexible aqueous Al ion battery is developed using cellulose paper as substrate. The water-in-salt electrolyte is stored inside the paper, while the electrodes are either printed or attached on the paper surface, leading to a lightweight and thin-film battery prototype. Currently, this battery can tolerate a charge and discharge rate as high as 4 A g−1 without losing its storage capacity. The charge voltage is around 2.2 V, while the discharge plateau of 1.6–1.8 V is among the highest in reported aqueous Al ion batteries, together with a high discharge specific capacity of ∼140 mAh g−1. However, due to the water electrolysis side reaction, the faradaic efficiency can only reach 85% with a cycle life of 250 due to the dry out of electrolyte. Benefited from using flexible materials and aqueous electrolyte, this paper-based Al ion battery can tolerate various deformations such as bending, rolling and even puncturing without losing its performance. When two single cells are connected in series, the battery pack can provide a charge voltage of 4.3 V and a discharge plateau as high as 3–3.6 V, which are very close to commercial Li ion batteries. Such a cheap, flexible and safe battery technology may be widely applied in low-cost and large-quantity applications, such as RFID tags, smart packages and wearable biosensors in the future.

An operational high temperature thermal energy storage system using magnesium iron hydride

Metal hydrides have been demonstrated as energy storage materials for thermal battery applications. This is due to the high energy density associated with the reversible thermochemical reaction between metals and hydrogen. Magnesium iron hydride (Mg2FeH6) is one such material that has been identified as a thermal energy storage material due to its reversible hydrogenation reaction at temperatures between 400 and 600 °C. This study demonstates an automated thermal battery prototype containing 900 g of Mg2FeH6 as the thermal energy storage material with pressurised water acting as the heat transfer fluid to charge and discharge the battery. The operating conditions of the system were optimised by assessing the ideal operating temperature, flow rate of the heat transfer fluid, and hydrogen pressures. Overall, excellent cyclic energy storage reversibility was demonstrated between 410 and 450 °C with a maximum energy capacity of 1650 kJ which is 87% of the theoretical value (1890 kJ).

Development of prototype battery management system for PV system

An energy and battery management systems (EMS/BMS) have a great importance in PV-battery system to increase the system efficiency and battery life. In this study, a prototype battery management system (BMS) has been designed and implemented for grid-connected residential-PV system with lithium-ion battery (LIB). Besides the main function of the all BMS which is to keep the LIBs within the safe-operation condition, by measuring/monitoring and controlling the battery parameters during the charge/discharge cycles, this designed BMS manages also the energy flow between PV system, battery, grid and load. In the designed BMS, there is a measuring unit (to measure current, voltage and temperatures), a control unit (to control the energy flows in the system), balancing circuit (capable of balancing in each of the four modules with 7LIB connected in series), the battery circuit (to fix the batteries well and measure the charge/discharge currents on the battery module).The proposed prototype system includes the designed BMS, 400Wp PV modules, 18650 type lithium-ion batteries (LIB) block with a capacity of 353 Wh, the programmable 300 W electronic DC load for modelling the various load profiles by reducing the real home energy consumption by 1/15, 300 W power supply for supplying the energy from the grid and 24 V light bulbs for the sale of excess energy to the grid. For retired and working household power consumption profiles, various scenarios were created for 24-h power consumption on different days on weekdays/weekends to test the proposed prototype system. These scenarios were uploaded on the electronic load, the operation of the designed battery and energy management system was tested with these experiments by using proposed prototype set-up. The battery management system ensured that the batteries operate in safe working conditions. Due to the energy management function of BMS, when the PV-batteries system is not sufficient, the energy will be taken from the grid; when the PVs charged batteries fully, the excess energy will be sold to the grid. Therefore, the designed prototype system, providing a flexible manner with various load profiles, will be useful tool in the investigation of the optimum conditions for a grid connected PV-battery system designed.