Source Of Protein For Human Consumption Research Articles

Adaptability and stability parameters of total seed yield and protein content in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) genotypes subjected to semi-arid conditions

The selection of superior cultivars through the combination of high yield and protein content cowpea seeds in semi-arid tropical regions have a huge positive impact on the production-market chains in places where there is short availability of protein sources for human consumption. The main aim of the present study is to estimate the adaptability and stability parameters of total seed yield and protein content in cowpea genotypes in order to release new cultivars by combining these value-added traits. Forty-four inbred lines and cultivars were assessed under seven different environmental conditions, either rain-fed or irrigated crop management, in seven sites the Brazilian semi-arid region. The seed protein content was quantified through the Kjeldahl method. Grain yield was adjusted in mean of plant per plot by the covariance method. Statistically significant differences in the genotype as well as in the genotype×environment interaction were observed in all the assays. The inbred lines presenting the highest protein contents showed the lowest grain yields, and it indicated the prominent “phenotypic cost” of protein in overall cowpea seed production. However, the breakage between the herein assessed association was observed in inbred lines subgroups such as ‘C3Q’, ‘C3M’, ‘C2S’, and ‘CIJ’. These lines showed yield close to or above 1050 kg/ha and mean protein content of 27%, as well as good adaptability and stability in different environments, as it was simultaneously indicated through two methodologies. Therefore, these inbred lines may represent a potential elite germplasm in cowpea breeding programs and/or in the releasing of new cultivars adapted to the semi-arid region.

Application of Biotechnology towards Diagnosis and Treatment in Veterinary Medicine in Africa: Potentials and Future Developments

Biotechnology is an already established technique in several areas of medicine, but its application in the field of veterinary medicine has only started to emerge with the potential to revolutionize veterinary practice. This paper therefore reviews the potential applications of biotechnology in veterinary medicine towards diagnosis and treatment in Africa which includes; molecular gene cloning, production of recombinant biotechnology derived vaccines, application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Polymerase chain reaction - restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and Bioinformatics to diagnosis of infectious and parasitic diseases , gene therapy, disease diagnosis, treatment delivery systems and many more. These components occur in other parts of the world and are therefore presumed to be consolidated into the African delivery framework as a private enterprise in a foreseeable future. Whilst it is sensible to postulate that biotechnology application and its peculiar evolution will imminently transform veterinary medicine, there is immense treat, amidst stakeholders in the industry, about food health and safety and other civil and ethical concerns which can hinder this novel scientific breakthrough. The ethical concerns which include; theory of the Three Rs (Reduction of animal population, Refinement of enactments and farm managements to curtail affliction and despair, Replacement of animals with non-animal surrogate wherever necessary. Limitations regarding the application to veterinary practices are extensively discussed. This review has implication on the future of revolutionalisation of veterinary practice and increase in animal protein source for human consumption

Descriptive sensory analysis and consumer acceptability of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.)

Purpose – A lack of available literature exists about sensory data on lucerne (which is mainly used for animal feed) as an underutilised protein source for human consumption in South Africa (SA). Developing tasteless lucerne products is meaningless. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to determine the descriptive sensory profile and consumers’ acceptability of lucerne. Design/methodology/approach – Three lucerne cultivars and one spinach beet (Beta vulgaris var. cicla L.) cultivar were used: first, to determine sensory descriptive attributes by generic descriptive analysis; and second, to determine consumers’ acceptance of lucerne, which were evaluated for degree of liking for aroma, taste, mouthfeel and overall acceptability with a nine-point hedonic scale. Principal component analysis of attributes for all the lucerne cultivars was applied to identify any factors differentiating between these cultivars. Findings – “SA Standard” showed the lowest value, of the lucerne samples, for fibrous appearance, chewy and fibrous mouthfeel, bitter taste and bitter and metallic aftertaste. “SA Standard” was the most acceptable lucerne cultivar, indicating its application in future studies to profile new emerging cultivars. Originality/value – No sensory analysis studies have been performed on South African lucerne cultivars to determine their sensory acceptability. These cultivars could have potential for food nutritionists, food scientists and food product developers and the commercial market.

PROXIMATE AND AMINO ACID COMPOSITIONS OF THE POND-CULTURED SPOTTED BARB, PUNTIUS BINOTATUS

The pond culture of spotted barb (Puntius binotatus) has been started in Sabah. However,the nutritional values of these cultured P. binotatus as a protein source for human consumption have neverbeen assessed. Therefore, the proximate and amino acid compositions of these cultured P. binotatus (n = 6, 3females and 3 males) were evaluated to provide baseline information on its nutritional quality. The fish wholebody contained about 18% and 9% of crude protein and lipid, respectively (in wet weight basis), 11% ashand 67% moisture. These proximate values were comparable to the wild-caught P. binotatus as reported inprevious study. In addition, the cultured P. binotatus contained high levels of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, andglycine, (approximately 37.4, 24.5, and 23.0 mg/ g of sample, respectively). It also contained high level oflysine (23.5 mg/ g of sample) which is an essential amino acid in human diet. In conclusion, the nutritionalquality of the cultured P. binotatus is good hence it is a suitable protein source for human consumption. Keywords: Proximate, Amino acids composition, spotted barb, Puntius binotatus

Shrimp allergic patients are at risk when eating mealworm proteins

Due to the imminent growth of the world population, shortage of protein sources for human consumption will arise in the near future. Alternative and sustainable protein sources like insects, such as mealworm, are now being explored for the production of food and feed. Before novel products can be launched on the market the assessment of food safety is vital. One of the key aspects of food safety is the risk of the development of food allergy. Food allergies specifically have a significant impact on the quality of life of allergic patients and their daily functioning, and they may even be life-threatening. TNO together with the University Medical Center Utrecht (UMCU) developed a risk assessment strategy to assess the allergenicity of novel proteins, in accordance to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidelines to assess the safety of Genetic modified organisms. Using this strategy the safety of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) proteins for use in human consumption was assessed. In this study, 15 shrimp allergic patients were tested on their allergic reaction to mealworm proteins. For this purpose different in vivo (skin prick tests) and in vitro tests (immune blot and basophil activation) were used. In all tests a positive reaction to mealworm extracts was seen. This indicates that shrimp allergic patients are at risk for developing allergic reactions when consuming food containing mealworm proteins. Double blind placebo controlled food challenge will have to confirm this in the coming months.

Study of the utilization of light egg-type males: A proposal for the sustainability of the egg industry

This study evaluated the performance and viability of light egg-type males, usually euthanized at the hatcheries, from White and Brown Leghorn laying hen lines. One-day-old male chicks, half from each hen line, were raised in floor pens until they were 42 d of age. The birds were distributed into 48 floor pens, furnished with tube feeders and nipple drinkers, and submitted to 24 h of continuous light, 3 feeding phases (1-7, 8-21, and 22-42 d) and diets composed of corn and soybean meal as the main ingredients. A completely randomized design was used in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement (phase levels of ME dietary treatments × strain) of 6 replicates of 40 birds each. The variables evaluated were bird performance, carcass quality, and yield at 42 d of age. Mortality and cannibalism were not observed during the entire experimental period, although the birds' beaks were not trimmed. The brown males line showed higher feed consumption and BW gain and better feed conversion compared with the white male line (P< 0.05). Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg) levels of 3,200 (1 to 7 d), 3,050 (8 to 21 d), and 3,200 (22 to 42 d) provided better performance (P< 0.05) in both lines. The carcass yields were similar (P> 0.05) between the 2 lines; males from the white line showed higher breast yield, and the brown line males showed higher yield of thighs and drumstick (P< 0.05). The treatments had no effect on meat quality (P > 0.05). Overall, the results suggest that there is great viability for the use of male chicks from laying hens of both leghorn lines as a high quality protein source for human consumption.

House dust mite (Der p 10) and crustacean allergic patients may react to food containing Yellow mealworm proteins

ScopeDue to the imminent growth of the world population, shortage of protein sources for human consumption will arise in the near future. Alternative and sustainable protein sources (e.g. insects) are being explored for the production of food and feed. In this project, the safety of Yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) for human consumption was tested using approaches as advised by the European Food Safety Authority for allergenicity risk assessment. Methods and resultsDifferent Yellow mealworm protein fractions were prepared, characterised, and tested for cross-reactivity using sera from patients with an inhalation or food allergy to biologically related species (House dust mite (HDM) and crustaceans) by immunoblotting and basophil activation. Furthermore, the stability was investigated using an in vitro pepsin digestion test. IgE from HDM- and crustacean allergic patients cross-reacted with Yellow mealworm proteins. This cross-reactivity was functional, as shown by the induction of basophil activation. The major cross-reactive proteins were identified as tropomyosin and arginine kinase, which are well known allergens in arthropods. These proteins were moderately stable in the pepsin stability test. ConclusionBased on these cross-reactivity studies, there is a realistic possibility that HDM- and crustacean allergic patients may react to food containing Yellow mealworm proteins.

Expression of Growth-Related Factors in Skeletal Muscle of Pirarucu(Arapaima Gigas) during Growth

The skeletal muscle of the species Arapaima gigas (pirarucu) constitutes the major edible part of the fish and is, therefore, an important protein source for human consumption. Post-natal muscle growth is regulated by the expression of myostatin as well as the Myogenic Regulatory Factors (MRFs) MyoD and myogenin. Once pirarucu reaches large size, we assume that the control of muscle growth by MRFs and myostatin occurs differentially at the initials life stages. In the present work we evaluated the morphological aspects and expression of MRF genes in skeletal muscle of pirarucu during early juvenile stage (Group A, up to 50 g, n=7), and post juvenile stages (Groups B, from 50 to 400 g, n=7; C, from 400 g to 5 kg, n=7, and D, from 5 to 9 kg, n=7). Transverse sections of red and white muscles were obtained to evaluate muscle fiber morphological and morphometric characteristics. MyoD, myogenin and myostatin genes and protein expressions were determined after quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, respectively. Pirarucu skeletal muscle exhibited similar morphologies at different life stages. It was possible to conclude that both hyperplasia and hypertrophy occur during muscle growth in early and postjuvenile stages. As regard as expression, both mRNA and protein levels were similar among all groups for MyoD and myogenin. Myostatin presented lower mRNA levels and higher protein levels in early-juvenile stage, compared with the other groups. The levels of MRFs and myostatin might be involved in a balance that controls hyperplasia and hypertrophy occurring during post-natal muscle growth. Myostatin does not appear to play a crucial role during pirarucu early-juvenile stages. Since this species represents an interesting model for aquaculture programs due to high growing rates, our data suggest that the best phase to improve muscle growth in pirarucu is at post-juvenile stage and this will turn the employment of pirarucu farming economically better.

Protein transport across the small intestine in food allergy

In view of the imminent deficiency of protein sources for human consumption in the near future, new protein sources need to be identified. However, safety issues such as the risk of allergenicity are often a bottleneck, due to the absence of predictive, validated and accepted methods for risk assessment. The current strategy to assess the allergenic potential of proteins focuses mainly on homology, stability and cross-reactivity, although other factors such as intestinal transport might be of added value too. In this review, we present an overview of the knowledge of protein transport across the intestinal wall and the methods currently being used to measure this. A literature study reveals that protein transport in sensitised persons occurs para-cellularly with the involvement of mast cells, and trans-cellularly via enterocytes, while in non-sensitised persons micro-fold cells and enterocytes are considered most important. However, there is a lack of comparable systematic studies on transport of allergenic proteins. Knowledge of the multiple protein transport pathways and which model system can be useful to study these processes may be of added value in the risk assessment of food allergenicity.

A South African perspective on livestock production in relation to greenhouse gases and water usage

The general perception that livestock is a major contributor to global warming resulted mainly from the FAO publication, Livestock’s Long Shadow, in 2006, which indicated that livestock is responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This figure has since been proved to be an overestimation, since it includes deforestation and other indirect contributions. The most recent figure is in the order of 5% - 10%. Although only ruminants can convert the world’s high-fibre vegetation intohigh-quality protein sources for human consumption, ruminant production systems are targeted as they are perceived to produce large quantities of GHG. Livestock is also accused of using large quantities of water, an allegation that is based on questionable assumptions and the perception that all sources of food production require a similar and equal quantity and quality of water. In the case of ruminants, extensive systems are usually found to have a lower per-area carbon footprint than grain-fed systems, but a higher footprint if expressed in terms of kg product. Feedlots maximize efficiency of meat production, resulting in a lower carbon footprint, whereas organic production systems consume more energy and have a bigger carbon footprint than conventional production systems. Cows on pastures produce more methane than cows on high concentrate diets. In South Africa, as in most of the countries in the sub-tropics, livestock production is the only option on about 70% of the agricultural land, since the marginal soils and rainfall do not allow for crop production and the utilization of green water. An effective way to reduce the carbon and water footprint of livestock is to decrease livestock numbers and increase production per animal, thereby improving their efficiency.Keywords: Animal products, carbon footprint, green and blue water, human nutrition, production systems, methane, water usage

Perspectivas actuales de la proteína unicelular (SCP) en la agricultura y la industria.

Since the beginning of the XXthcentury, single cell protein production has represented abiotechnological option, which viability has been muchargued, for the handling and profitable disposal of largeamounts of agricultural and industrial waste materials. Due tothe nature of this process, lots of pollution sources can betransformed into useful materials with industrial, nutritionaland economical value. This paper overviews the historicalevolution of single cell protein, its importance andapplications, advantages and disadvantages of its use inindustrial processes, the main microorganisms known to be asource of SCP, the most representative substrates used fortheir growth, the biochemistry and key operations of theindustrial process, general economical facts and futureprospects. Nutritional aspects such as composition,nutritional value and limitations of SCP as a source of proteinfor human consumption are also reviewed.

House dust mite (Derp 10) and crustacean allergic patients may be at risk when consuming food containing mealworm proteins

Background Due to the imminent growth of the world population, shortage of protein sources for human consumption will arise in the near future. Alternative and sustainable protein sources (e.g. insects and algae) are now being explored for the production of food and feed. In this project the safety of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) proteins for human consumption was tested according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [1] guidelines for allergenicity risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMO). Methods Different mealworm protein fractions (soluble and insoluble) were prepared, characterized, and tested for cross-reactivity using IgE from patients with an inhalation or food allergy to closely related species (house dust mite and crustacean) according to the phylogenetic tree, using immunoblotting and indirect basophil activation. Furthermore, the stability was investigated using an in vitro pepsin digestion test. Results IgE from both house dust mite and crustacean allergic patients cross-reacted with proteins in mealworm. This cross-reactivity was functional, as shown by the induction of basophil activation. The cross-reactive proteins were identified as tropomyosin and arginine kinase, which are well known allergens in lobster, shrimp and house dust mite. These proteins were mildly stable in the pepsin stability test. Conclusion

Improved production efficiency in cattle to reduce their carbon footprint for beef production

The FAO publication, Livestock’s Long Shadow, indicated that livestock is responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas production thereby creating the perception that livestock is a major cause of global warming. Methane (CH4) makes up 16% of total world gas emissions and is the second most important greenhouse gas (GHG) after carbon dioxide (CO2). Ruminants are important to mankind since most of the world’s vegetation biomass is rich in fibre and only ruminants can convert this vegetation into high quality protein sources for human consumption. In spite of this important role of livestock, it is singled out as producing large quantities of GHG that contribute to climate change, since enteric fermentation is responsible for 28% of global CH4 emissions. However, the net effect from livestock is only a 4.5% contribution to GHG. The livestock industry should be aware of the effect of livestock on climate change and therefore it is important that mechanisms are put in place to mitigate this effect. The improvement of production efficiency through increased production per constant unit, crossbreeding and genetic improvement may be a cost effective and permanent way of reducing the carbon footprint of beef cattle.

Distinct bioaccumulation profile of pesticides and dioxin-like compounds by mollusk bivalves reared in polluted and unpolluted tropical bays: Consumption risk and seasonal effect

Mariculture activity has increased its production along the Atlantic Coast of Brazil over the last years. This protein source for human consumption may also represent risks due to the exposure to bioaccumulated contaminants in the tissues of organisms reared in polluted shallow waters. This study evaluated the bioaccumulation of pesticides and dioxin-like compounds in two commercial marine bivalve species reared at different sites along the Rio de Janeiro State coast (SE-Brazil). We observed distinct contamination profiles in bivalve tissues reared at each sampling site, which may be related to human activities historically developed in those areas. A pronounced tendency for higher contamination levels in animals sampled in the last month of winter (September) is discussed as being likely due to environmental issues, rather than biological factors. Based on Minimal Risk Level, Maximum Residue, Acceptable Daily Intake and Toxic Equivalent, bivalves are classified as safe for human consumption.

Nutritional assessment and effects of heat processing on digestibility of Chinese sweet potato protein

The amino acid composition, in vitro and in vivo digestibility as well as trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) of sweet potato protein (SPP) were evaluated. The effects of different types of heat processing on the in vitro digestibility and TIA of SPP were also investigated. The results showed that SPP was deficient in lysine, but rich in threonine, valine, tryptophan and aromatic amino acids. SDS–PAGE analysis showed that native SPP was not easily digested by pepsin–pancreatin enzyme system, whereas commercial soy protein isolate (SPI) displayed a good in vitro digestibility. Autoclaving (127°C for 20min, 0.145MPa) significantly improved in vitro and in vivo digestibility of SPP. The in vivo digestibility of autoclaved SPP was 95.1%, which was comparable to that of SPI (96.1%) and casein (97.4%), and remarkably higher than that of native SPP (50.4%). PDCAAS of native SPP and autoclaved SPP were 0.36 and 0.66, respectively. In addition, autoclaving also markedly decreased TIA of native SPP from 67.8 to 2.0mgtrypsin/g protein. Autoclaving enhanced in vitro digestibility and decreased TIA of native SPP, thereby improving its food qualities. Although SPP was deficient in lysine, autoclaved SPP could be utilized as a good protein source for human consumption.

Technological and Economical Considerations for Breeding Terrestrial Snails Cornu aspersum ( Helix aspersa Muller) and Helix pomatia as Alternative Animal Protein Source for Human Consumption towards Ecological Protection and Sustainable Development

Farming potential of the most popular edible terre strial snails, it was investigated within the context of efficient agricultural land u se of for maximum animal protein production. The stress induced by climate changes upon the snail's development is a considering factor, therefore snails are tested for fitness. Sel-Plex TM is used as concentrated forage additive in both 20 09 and 2010 experiments involving Cornu aspersum ( Helix aspersa Muller) and Helix pomatia edible terrestrial snails. Young snails of 4-7 days were tested for cr awling speed as fitness component, an expression of vitality and resistance during prolonged heat waves and drought season. Using proper white led based cold lighting sources and high definition highly se nsitive video recording equipment snail's activity has been recorded. Snails crawling on graded paper allowed for measuring their speed. Seeing thru the snail's shell due to proper light positioning, hear tbeat was counted as well during the crawling. Whil e the heartbeat rate of the snails is relatively high on all snail batches, respectively 97-102 bpm (bit s per minute) due to the high temperature, the snails fed with Sel-Plex TM 0.10% have the highest speed, namely 1.5694±0.0504 mm/s followed by the snails fed with Sel-Plex TM 0.04%, averaging 1.4403±0.0323 mm/s respectively. The paper introduces for the first time the concept of Gain to the Proposed Norm (GPN), presented as a development indicative, a progress indices towards meeting a predetermined goal target. The yield upon slaughter is a factor that plays a major roll as to recommen d Cornu aspersum species for farming as opposed to its counterpart Helix pomatia .

Nutritional Value of the Maize Stalk Borer and American Bollworm as Unconventional Protein Sources

Problem statement: The maize stalk borer and American bollworm were grown in an artificial media to evaluate their potential as human food sources. Approach: Both cultures were started from moths and the life cycle and culture structures were evaluated. Results: The larvae of both insects reached maximum weight and maximum length at the same time. The growth rate of the youngest larvae was found to be the highest and the increase in the body weight during the growth period appeared to be linear. The larvae of these insects started to decrease in weight after they reached the maximum size. For efficient systems for the commercial production of the maize stalk borer and the American bollworm, the larvae should be harvested when they are 39 and 21 days old, respectively. The protein contents were 38.0 and 33.0% and the fat contents were 14.5 and 14.4% for the dried larvae of the American bollworm and maize stalk borer, respectively. The larvae of both insects contained the essential amino acids and minerals. Only 10% mortality was observed with older larvae of both species. A system where eggs are separated from adults and hatched in separate chambers would alleviate the possible danger of losing the population due to microbial infection. The high moisture content of the larvae (60.4-61.0%) could cause handling and storage problems. Drying and grinding the larvae would reduce them to easily manageable forms and would improve their marketability as novel food. Conclusion: The results obtained from this study show the potential of using insects as a protein source for human consumption to alleviate protein deficiency in many parts of the world, especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Further research is required to evaluate their growth characteristics on low substrates. Future research should also evaluate environmental parameters such as temperature, relative humidity and heat and CO2 production on food consumption and protein yield per gram substrate. This information will aid in the design of optimal production systems.

The Use of Insects as Human Food in Zambia

Problem statement: The life cycle and culture structure of two commonly eaten worms in Zambia (Isoberlinia paniculata and Miombo/Mopani) were evaluated. The worms were grown on an artificial medium to evaluate the potential of producing them on a commercial scale. Approach: An interesting characteristic of the worms studied was that they reached their maximum weight and maximum length at the same time. Results: The larvae started to decrease in weight soon after reaching their maximum size suggesting that they should be harvested shortly before reaching their maximum length (36 days old). Only 10% mortality was observed with the older larvae of the Miombo/Mopani worm. A system where eggs are separated from adults and hatched in separate chambers would alleviate the danger of losing the population due to microbial infection. The high moisture content of the live larvae (60.5-60.9%) could cause handling and storage problems. Drying and grinding the larvae would reduce them to easily manageable forms and would improve their marketability as a novel food. The results obtained from this study showed the potential of using these insects as a protein source for human consumption. They had structured animal protein that contained the essential amino acids, lipids, vitamins, minerals and energy required for human growth and their nutrition contents are comparable to those of conventional foods. These worms are harvested from trees in Africa but the industry is facing droughts and overexploitation that has lead to local extinctions in several areas. Conclusion/Recommendations: Therefore, further research is required to evaluate their growth on low substrates and to assess the effects of environmental parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, CO2 and heat production on food consumption and protein yield and quality. This information will aid in the design of an optimal commercial insect production system. Appropriate processing and marketing procedures would also insure the sustainability of the industry.

Determination of the nutritional value, protein quality and safety of krill protein concentrate isolated using an isoelectric solubilization/precipitation technique

Despite its abundance, krill is not utilized for human consumption due to the lack of proper technology for protein recovery. The objectives of this study were to isolate krill protein concentrate (KPC) and to determine the nutritional value, health benefits, and safety of KPC for human consumption. Proximate analysis of protein recovered by isoelectric solubilzation/precipitation indicated that KPC was composed of approximately 78% protein and 8% fat (dry weight). In vivo analysis of protein quality indicated that protein digestibility corrected for amino acid score and protein efficiency ratio was equal to casein. KPC safety was indicated by the absence of differences in clinical measures of kidney function compared to casein. Fatty acid analysis of KPC showed that approximately 27% were omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs). Based on our study, KPC appears to be a promising protein source for human consumption with the advantage of being a rich source of ω-3 PUFAs.

Nutrient Composition and Processing of the Variegated Grasshopper Zonocerus variegatus (L.)(Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae) for Human Consumption

Grasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus (L), was processed using five different methods and evaluated for sensory quality, nutrient and mineral composition. Boiling, removal of wings, decapitation, washing, draining, frying or roasting gave acceptable products to tasters. The raw insect, which contains 64.28±0.70% moisture, when processed had values of 61.65±0.20%, 20.73±0.54%, 4.25±0.70%, 1.45±0.02%, 1.25±0.40%, 150ppm, 75.6ppm, 70.3ppm and 33ppm for its crude protein, ether extract, carbohydrate, crude fibre, ash, potassium, magnesium, copper and sodium contents respectively. The insect was however, found to be poor in its iron and calcium contents. Z. variegatus may serve as a non-conventional protein source for human consumption if properly processed.