Protein Phosphatase 2A Reactivation Research Articles

PP2A activation as a new therapeutic strategy in neuroblastoma: Making sense out of senescence.

10055 Background: Neuroblastoma (NBL) is the most common extracranial solid tumor in children, accounting for 15% of all pediatric cancer deaths. The five-year survival rate for children with high-risk disease is less than 50%, with the primary reasons for mortality being refractory and relapsed disease. One hypothesis for the poor response to therapy and propensity for recurrent disease in high-risk patients is treatment-induced senescence (TIS). Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a known tumor suppressor that is downregulated in NBL. PP2A activation has been shown to reverse cellular senescence in non-cancerous pathologies, therefore we hypothesized that reactivation of PP2A using novel small molecule activators would function as a novel senotherapeutic in NBL. Methods: We employed MYCNamplified, SK-N-BE(2), and non-amplified, SK-N-AS, established human NBL cell lines. Topotecan, a common NBL chemotherapeutic, known to induce senescence, and ATUX-1215, a small molecule PP2A activator, were utilized. NBL cells were treated with topotecan and ATUX-1215 alone, as well as in combination. Colorimetric assays detected cell viability and proliferation. Immunoblotting identified proteins of interest including γ-H2AX and CCL2. TIS was detected by S-β galactosidase (Sβgal) assay. Results: We found increased expression of the senescence marker, histone γ-H2AX, and increased Sβgal-positive tumor cells supporting the ability of topotecan to generate TIS in NBL. Following treatment with PP2A activator in combination with topotecan, markers of TIS are decreased in both MYCN amplified and non-amplified NBL cells. Further, and importantly, PP2A activation reversed the effects of topotecan TIS and acted in a synergistic fashion to decrease NBL cell viability. Conclusions: Activation of PP2A with a novel small molecule ameliorates topotecan-induced TIS in NBL cells irrespective of MYCN status. These results are promising, providing a potential novel therapeutic adjunct to children who are most in need of innovative interventions.

KRAS-mediated upregulation of CIP2A promotes suppression of PP2A-B56α to initiate pancreatic cancer development.

Oncogenic mutations in KRAS are present in approximately 95% of patients diagnosed with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and are considered the initiating event of pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN) precursor lesions. While it is well established that KRAS mutations drive the activation of oncogenic kinase cascades during pancreatic oncogenesis, the effects of oncogenic KRAS signaling on regulation of phosphatases during this process is not fully appreciated. Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) has been implicated in suppressing KRAS-driven cellular transformation. However, low PP2A activity is observed in PDAC cells compared to non-transformed cells, suggesting that suppression of PP2A activity is an important step in the overall development of PDAC. In the current study, we demonstrate that KRASG12D induces the expression of both an endogenous inhibitor of PP2A activity, Cancerous Inhibitor of PP2A (CIP2A), and the PP2A substrate, c-MYC. Consistent with these findings, KRASG12D sequestered the specific PP2A subunit responsible for c-MYC degradation, B56α, away from the active PP2A holoenzyme in a CIP2A-dependent manner. During PDAC initiation in vivo, knockout of B56α promoted KRASG12D tumorigenesis by accelerating acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM) and the formation of PanIN lesions. The process of ADM was attenuated ex vivo in response to pharmacological re-activation of PP2A utilizing direct small molecule activators of PP2A (SMAPs). Together, our results suggest that suppression of PP2A-B56α through KRAS signaling can promote the MYC-driven initiation of pancreatic tumorigenesis.

PP2A-based triple-strike therapy overcomes mitochondrial apoptosis resistance in brain cancer cells.

Mitochondrial glycolysis and hyperactivity of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-protein kinase B (AKT) pathway are hallmarks of malignant brain tumors. However, kinase inhibitors targeting AKT (AKTi) or the glycolysis master regulator pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDKi) have failed to provide clinical benefits for brain tumor patients. Here, we demonstrate that heterogeneous glioblastoma (GB) and medulloblastoma (MB) cell lines display only cytostatic responses to combined AKT and PDK targeting. Biochemically, the combined AKT and PDK inhibition resulted in the shutdown of both target pathways and priming to mitochondrial apoptosis but failed to induce apoptosis. In contrast, all tested brain tumor cell models were sensitive to a triplet therapy, in which AKT and PDK inhibition was combined with the pharmacological reactivation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) by NZ-8-061 (also known as DT-061), DBK-1154, and DBK-1160. We also provide proof-of-principle evidence for in vivo efficacy in the intracranial GB and MB models by the brain-penetrant triplet therapy (AKTi + PDKi + PP2A reactivator). Mechanistically, PP2A reactivation converted the cytostatic AKTi + PDKi response to cytotoxic apoptosis, through PP2A-elicited shutdown of compensatory mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and by increased proton leakage. These results encourage the development of triple-strike strategies targeting mitochondrial metabolism to overcome therapy tolerance in brain tumors.

Activation of the PP2A-B56α heterocomplex synergizes with venetoclax therapies in AML through BCL2 and MCL1 modulation

AbstractVenetoclax combination therapies are becoming the standard of care in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). However, the therapeutic benefit of these drugs in older/unfit patients is limited to only a few months, highlighting the need for more effective therapies. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a tumor suppressor phosphatase with pleiotropic functions that becomes inactivated in ∼70% of AML cases. PP2A promotes cancer cell death by modulating the phosphorylation state in a variety of proteins along the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. We therefore hypothesized that pharmacological PP2A reactivation could increase BCL2 dependency in AML cells and, thus, potentiate venetoclax–induced cell death. Here, by using 3 structurally distinct PP2A-activating drugs, we show that PP2A reactivation synergistically enhances venetoclax activity in AML cell lines, primary cells, and xenograft models. Through the use of gene editing tools and pharmacological approaches, we demonstrate that the observed therapeutic synergy relies on PP2A complexes containing the B56α regulatory subunit, of which expression dictates response to the combination therapy. Mechanistically, PP2A reactivation enhances venetoclax-driven apoptosis through simultaneous inhibition of antiapoptotic BCL2 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling, with the latter decreasing MCL1 protein stability. Finally, PP2A targeting increases the efficacy of the clinically approved venetoclax and azacitidine combination in vitro, in primary cells, and in an AML patient-derived xenograft model. These preclinical results provide a scientific rationale for testing PP2A-activating drugs with venetoclax combinations in AML.

SHARPIN S146 phosphorylation mediates ARP2/3 interaction, cancer cell invasion and metastasis.

SHARPIN is involved in several cellular processes and promotes cancer progression. However, how the choice between different functions of SHARPIN is post-translationally regulated is unclear. Here, we characterized SHARPIN phosphorylation by mass spectrometry and in vitro kinase assay. Focusing on S131 and S146, we demonstrate that they have a role in SHARPIN-ARP2/3 complex interaction, but play no role in integrin inhibition or LUBAC activation. Consistent with its novel role in ARP2/3 regulation, S146 phosphorylation of SHARPIN promoted lamellipodia formation. We also demonstrate that SHARPIN S146 phosphorylation-mediated ARP2/3 interaction is sensitive to inhibition of ERK1/2 or reactivation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Notably, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of SHARPIN abrogated three-dimensional (3D) invasion of several cancer cell lines. The 3D invasion of cancer cells was rescued by overexpression of the wild-type SHARPIN, but not by SHARPIN S146A mutant. Finally, we demonstrate that inhibition of phosphorylation at S146 significantly reduces in vivo metastasis in a zebrafish model. Collectively, these results map SHARPIN phosphorylation sites and identify S146 as a novel phosphorylation switch defining ARP2/3 interaction and cancer cell invasion. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

PP2A regulates metastasis and vasculogenic mimicry formation via PI3K/AKT/ZEB1 axis in non-small cell lung cancers

Studies have shown that inhibition of PI3K/AKT signaling is a key strategy for the treatment of tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) not only accelerates tumor progression but also increases drug-induced resistance. As a tumor suppressor, protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a ubiquitous conserved serine/threonine phosphatase. While its effects and mechanisms on VM formation and invasion in NSCLC remain unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the role of PP2A in VM formation and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Results showed that PP2A could significantly inhibit VM formation and VM-dependent behavior, including invasion and migration both in vitro and in vivo. Activation of PP2A with FTY720 or Ad-PP2A reduced phosphorylated AKT and inhibited ZEB1 transcription, thereby further downregulating the expression of MMP-2, VE-cadherin, and VEGFR-2, whereas inhibition of PP2A with okadaic acid (OA) or Ad-dn-PP2A exerted the opposite effect. Furthermore, PP2A inhibited tumor growth and VM formation in the xenograft tumor model. PI3K inhibitor BENC-511 could potentiate activation of PP2A, leading to inhibition of p-AKT/ZEB1 and VM formation in vitro and in vivo. This study indicated that PP2A could regulate VM formation in NSCLC through the PI3K/AKT/ZEB1 axis. PP2A reactivation or combination with PI3K inhibitor might be a more effective treatment against advanced NSCLC by inhibiting VM formation.

Direct-Acting Small Molecule Activators of PP2A (SMAPs) in Myeloid Malignancies: Understanding Mechanisms of Cytotoxicity to Inform Rational Combinatorial Therapeutic Strategies

The protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) functions as a tumor suppressor by counteracting oncogenic kinase signaling. Suppression of PP2A activity represents a critical process in the development and maintenance of many neoplasms, including myeloid malignancies; PP2A inhibition de-represses numerous proliferative and survival signaling pathways. However, complete loss of PP2A is lethal to cells. As such, indirect reactivation of PP2A has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for myeloid leukemias. Yet the broad applicability of such a strategy remains uncertain, as it relies on targeting endogenous PP2A inhibitors. In the present work we investigated the effects of direct acting small molecule activators of PP2A (SMAPs) (Sandokar et al. JCI 2017) on myeloid leukemia cells and uncovered a novel link between PP2A reactivation and NOXA-mediated apoptosis. This mechanism explains our observation of cooperativity between SMAPs and the BH3 mimetic ABT-199 (venetoclax). Additionally, we found that SMAPs elicit a protective stress response that can be overcome by inhibition ofprotein kinase R (PKR)-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK).Given the known role of PP2A inactivation in both acute and chronic myeloid leukemia (AML and CML), we first tested the activity of SMAPs against cell lines derived from both diseases. Across all cell lines tested (CML- K562, Meg-01; AML- MOLM-14, HL-60, OCI-AML3, THP-1) SMAPs caused a dose-dependent decrease in cell viability. It is known that reactivation of PP2A induces apoptosis in myeloid leukemia cells, though this area has yet to be thoroughly investigated. Therefore, we first sought to clarify the mode of cell death in response to PP2A reactivation. Both by biochemical and flow cytometric analyses, SMAPs showed activation of the intrinsic apoptotic cascade. Furthermore, SMAP-mediated cell death was blocked by co-treatment with the caspase inhibitor z-VAD-FMK (50 μM). We previously demonstrated the target specificity of SMAPs for PP2A with methods including expression of SV40 small T antigen and PP2A alpha subunit drug-binding mutants (Sandokar et al. JCI 2017). Here, we confirmed that pre-treatment with the PP2A inhibitor okadaic acid at a dose that retains selectivity for PP2A (10 nM) attenuated SMAP-induced cell death and cleavage of PARP and caspase-3.Next, we investigated the effectors of SMAP-mediated apoptosis. To this end, we performed Western blots to detect changes in abundance and/or phosphorylation of a panel of Bcl-2 family member proteins. Interestingly, a strong upregulation of the pro-apoptotic protein NOXA occurred consistently across AML and CML cell lines. Further RT-PCR studies showed this increase to occur at the transcript level. Knockdown studies confirmed the importance of NOXA for SMAP-mediated apoptosis. These data represent the first reported link between PP2A and NOXA regulation. Since SMAPs target the NOXA-MCL1 axis of the Bcl-2 family, we next tested their efficacy in combination with the Bcl-2-selective BH3 mimetic ABT-199. We found co-treatment with SMAPs and ABT-199 to exhibit enhanced cell death compared to either agent alone.Concurrent with NOXA elevation, SMAP treatment modulated protein expression and phosphorylation levels for several known pathways downstream of PP2A. Interestingly, we additionally observed increased phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 subunit alpha (eIF2α) in SMAP-treated cells which correlated with upregulation of mRNA and protein for the downstream transcription factor ATF4. Blockade of eIF2α phosphorylation with PERK inhibitor GSK2656157 (350 nM) prevented ATF4 elevation and enhanced SMAP-induced apoptosis. This result supports the idea that the integrated stress response (ISR) via PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 acts to counter apoptosis in the context of PP2A reactivation in myeloid leukemia cells. Thus, the efficacy of SMAPs and other PP2A-activating therapeutics may be enhanced by combination with both BH3 mimetics and inhibitors of the ISR. DisclosuresNarla:Mount Sinai School of Medicine: Patents & Royalties: patents on the small molecule PP2A activators (GN).

1HN, 13C, and 15N backbone resonance assignments of the SET/TAF-1β/I2PP2A oncoprotein (residues 23-225).

SET (TAF-1β/I2PP2A) is a ubiquitously expressed, multifunctional protein that plays a role in regulating diverse cellular processes, including cell cycle progression, migration, apoptosis, transcription, and DNA repair. SET expression is ubiquitous across all cell types. However, it is overexpressed or post-translationally modified in several solid tumors and blood cancers, where expression levels are correlated with worsening clinical outcomes.SET exerts its oncogenic effects primarily through the formation of antagonistic protein complexes with the tumor suppressor, protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), and the well-known metastasis suppressor, nm23-H1. PP2A inhibition is often observed as a secondary driver of tumorigenesis and metastasis in human cancers. Preclinical studies have shown that the pharmacological reactivation of PP2A combined with potent inhibitors of the primary driver oncogene produces synergistic cell death and decreased drug resistance.Therefore, the development of novel inhibitors of the SET-PP2A interaction presents an attractive approach to reactivation of PP2A, and thereby, tumor suppression. NMR provides a unique platform to investigate protein targets in their natively folded state to identify protein and small-molecule ligands and report on the protein internal dynamics.The backbone 1HN, 13C, and 15N NMR resonance assignments were completed for the 204 amino acid nucleosome assembly protein-1 (NAP-1) domain of the human SET oncoprotein (residues 23-225).These assignments provide a vital first step toward the development of novel PP2A reactivators via SET-selective inhibition.

CBP Bromodomain Inhibition Rescues Mice From Lethal Sepsis Through Blocking HMGB1-Mediated Inflammatory Responses

CREB binding protein (CBP), a transcriptional coactivator and acetyltransferase, is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammation-related diseases. High mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1) is a critical mediator of lethal sepsis, which has prompted investigation for the development of new treatment for inflammation. Here, we report that the potent and selective inhibition of CBP bromodomain by SGC-CBP30 blocks HMGB1-mediated inflammatory responses in vitro and in vivo. Our data suggest that CBP bromodomain inhibition suppresses LPS-induced expression and release of HMGB1, when the inhibitor was given 8 h post LPS stimulation; moreover, CBP bromodomain inhibition attenuated pro-inflammatory activity of HMGB1. Furthermore, our findings provide evidence that SGC-CBP30 down-regulated rhHMGB1-induced activation of MAPKs and NF-κB signaling by triggering the reactivation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and the stabilization of MAPK phosphatase 1 (MKP-1). Collectively, these results suggest that CBP bromodomain could serve as a candidate therapeutic target for the treatment of lethal sepsis via inhibiting LPS-induced expression and release of HMGB1 and suppressing the pro-inflammatory activity of HMGB1.

Perphenazine exerts antitumor effects on HUT78 cells through Akt dephosphorylation by protein phosphatase 2A.

Sezary syndrome is a rare type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is an important tumor suppressor whose activity is widely inhibited in a variety of tumors. Recently, reactivation of PP2A has attracted increasing attention as a promising approach for cancer therapy. Phenothiazine anti-psychotic perphenazine (PPZ) exerts antitumor effects by reactivating PP2A. The present study investigated the molecular mechanism underling the antitumor effects of PPZ in the neuroblastoma rat sarcoma oncogene (NRAS)-mutated Sezary syndrome cell line, HUT78. The results of the present study demonstrated that PPZ induced the dephosphorylation of Akt and ERK1/2, and triggered apoptosis in HUT78 cells. In addition, a PP2A inhibitor blocked the PPZ-mediated dephosphorylation of Akt but did not affect that of ERK1/2. The pharmacological inhibition of Akt and ERK1/2 signaling revealed that Akt activity serves an important role in the survival of HUT78 cells. The present data suggested that suppressing Akt activity by PP2A activation may be an attractive antitumor strategy for NRAS-mutated Sezary syndrome.

Sphingosine Analogs and Protein Phosphatase 2A as a Molecular Targeted Cancer Therapy: A Mini Systematic Review

Background: Regulation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) plays an important role in hematologic and solid neoplasms. Therefore, the use of sphingosine analogs as anti-neoplastic drugs has shown potential due to their role as PP2A activators. Objective: Investigation of whether sphingosine analogs bind to endogenous inhibitor proteins of PP2A, such as I2 PP2A/SET and/or CIP2A, and whether this binding reactivates PP2A, allowing it to resume its role as a tumor suppressor. Methods: Literature from the PubMed database was searched and those articles related to PP2A and sphingosine analogs were reviewed. Results: Utilization of sphingosine analogs in hematologic and solid neoplasms revealed numerous mechanisms of inducing cell death. Regulation of PP2A through modulation of I2 PP2A/SET and/or CIP2A was demonstrated in a variety of neoplastic processes; however, unique mechanisms such as cell necrosis via the production of reactive oxygen species was also appreciated. Conclusion: Only certain malignancies expressed endogenous inhibitor proteins, yet sphingosine analogs were able to induce cell death in neoplasms that did not express these proteins. This suggests that sphingosine analogs may be utilized for anti-neoplastic therapy via reactivation of PP2A however, it is not the exclusive mechanism for inducing cell death. Further investigation of sphingosine analogs as a novel or adjunctive chemotherapeutic treatment is warranted.

Abstract A34: Targeting Protein Phosphatase 2A in Combination with PARP inhibitors for the treatment of high-grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer

Abstract Ovarian cancer (OvC) is the deadliest of all female gynecologic malignancies, ranking as the fifth cause of cancer-related deaths among women. High-grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer (HGSOC) accounts for almost 90% of all forms of OvC, remaining as the most lethal subtype of ovarian malignancies. HGSOC is usually diagnosed at a later stage at which the disease has already progressed into metastatic, having a 5-year survival rate of only 17%. Treatment of HGSOC relies on aggressive approaches including surgery and platinum-based chemotherapies, with the majority of cases requiring combination of both. The molecular mechanism driving ovarian tumorigenesis is not fully understood, and its investigation is essential to provide better and novel therapeutic options for the treatment and cure of this disease. Targeted therapies have been vastly explored in the cancer research field due to their promise in reducing side effects by specifically targeting oncogenic pathways predominantly deregulated in human malignancies. DNA damage and repair (DDR) pathway aberrations and genomic instability are two main hallmarks of OvC. Extensive efforts in targeting this pathway have been devoted to introduce new drugs in the clinic that can target the DDR and homologous recombination (HR) pathways as therapeutic means for treatment of HGSOC. The use of PARP inhibitors (PARPi) to achieve synthetic lethality in OvC has been shown to have great promise in efficiently reducing tumor burden by specifically targeting tumor cells for cell death. However, PARPi’s antitumoral efficacy alone is limited by the status of the BRCA1/2 genes, narrowing down the patient population that can benefit from such therapies. Eventually, patients treated with PARPi alone relapse and develop resistant OvC, for which treatment options available are extremely limited. Our preliminary data show that first-in-class small-molecule activators of PP2A (SMAPs) in combination with PARPi can effectively reduce tumor burden in PDX models, promoting a synergistic effect in platinum-sensitive and -resistant OvC tumors, despite the BRCA gene status. Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and Protein Phosphatase 1 (PP1) account for 90% of all serine/threonine phosphatase activity in the cell and act as two main tumor suppressors. These phosphatases tightly regulate signaling pathways involved with cell cycle, growth, migration, metabolism, survival and many oncogenic pathways by counteracting kinases. HGSOC tumors express inactivated PP2A due to PPP2RA1 heterozygous loss, although lacking mutations, making it an ideal target for reactivation in these cancers. Moreover, we have shown that reactivation of PP2A via SMAPs leads to potent inhibition of several key DDR proteins. We have found that SMAPs treatment in BRCA1/2 WT tumors confers a “BRCAness” phenotype, which sensitizes tumors to DNA repair inhibitors such as PARPi. In sum, SMAPs can allow us to expand the patient population that can benefit from PARPi therapies and possibly overcome drug resistance. Citation Format: Rita A. Avelar, Amy Armstrong, Goutham Narla, Analisa DiFeo. Targeting Protein Phosphatase 2A in Combination with PARP inhibitors for the treatment of high-grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on Advances in Ovarian Cancer Research; 2019 Sep 13-16, 2019; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Clin Cancer Res 2020;26(13_Suppl):Abstract nr A34.

Phosphoproteome and drug-response effects mediated by the three protein phosphatase 2A inhibitor proteins CIP2A, SET, and PME-1

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) critically regulates cell signaling and is a human tumor suppressor. PP2A complexes are modulated by proteins such as cancerous inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A (CIP2A), protein phosphatase methylesterase 1 (PME-1), and SET nuclear proto-oncogene (SET) that often are deregulated in cancers. However, how they impact cellular phosphorylation and how redundant they are in cellular regulation is poorly understood. Here, we conducted a systematic phosphoproteomics screen for phosphotargets modulated by siRNA-mediated depletion of CIP2A, PME-1, and SET (to reactivate PP2A) or the scaffolding A-subunit of PP2A (PPP2R1A) (to inhibit PP2A) in HeLa cells. We identified PP2A-modulated targets in diverse cellular pathways, including kinase signaling, cytoskeleton, RNA splicing, DNA repair, and nuclear lamina. The results indicate nonredundancy among CIP2A, PME-1, and SET in phosphotarget regulation. Notably, PP2A inhibition or reactivation affected largely distinct phosphopeptides, introducing a concept of nonoverlapping phosphatase inhibition- and activation-responsive sites (PIRS and PARS, respectively). This phenomenon is explained by the PPP2R1A inhibition impacting primarily dephosphorylated threonines, whereas PP2A reactivation results in dephosphorylation of clustered and acidophilic sites. Using comprehensive drug-sensitivity screening in PP2A-modulated cells to evaluate the functional impact of PP2A across diverse cellular pathways targeted by these drugs, we found that consistent with global phosphoproteome effects, PP2A modulations broadly affect responses to more than 200 drugs inhibiting a broad spectrum of cancer-relevant targets. These findings advance our understanding of the phosphoproteins, pharmacological responses, and cellular processes regulated by PP2A modulation and may enable the development of combination therapies.

Direct Activation of Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) by Tricyclic Sulfonamides Ameliorates Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis in Cell and Animal Models.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease for which there are limited therapeutic strategies. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity is decreased in AD brains, which promotes the hyperphosphorylation of Tau and APP, thus participate in the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and β-amyloid (Aβ) overproduction. In this study, the effect of synthetic tricyclic sulfonamide PP2A activators (aka SMAPs) on reducing AD-like pathogenesis was evaluated in AD cell models and AD-like hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) rat models. SMAPs effectively increased PP2A activity, and decreased tau phosphorylation and Aβ40/42 levels in AD cell models. In HHcy-AD rat models, cognitive impairments induced by HHcy were rescued by SMAP administration. HHcy-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and Aβ overproduction were ameliorated through increasing PP2A activity on compound treatment. Importantly, SMAP therapy also prevented neuronal cell spine loss and neuronal synapse impairment in the hippocampus of HHcy-AD rats. In summary, our data reveal that pharmacological PP2A reactivation may be a novel therapeutic strategy for AD treatment, and that the tricyclic sulfonamides constitute a novel candidate class of AD therapeutic.

Monotherapy efficacy of blood-brain barrier permeable small molecule reactivators of protein phosphatase 2A in glioblastoma.

Glioblastoma is a fatal disease in which most targeted therapies have clinically failed. However, pharmacological reactivation of tumour suppressors has not been thoroughly studied as yet as a glioblastoma therapeutic strategy. Tumour suppressor protein phosphatase 2A is inhibited by non-genetic mechanisms in glioblastoma, and thus, it would be potentially amendable for therapeutic reactivation. Here, we demonstrate that small molecule activators of protein phosphatase 2A, NZ-8-061 and DBK-1154, effectively cross the in vitro model of blood–brain barrier, and in vivo partition to mouse brain tissue after oral dosing. In vitro, small molecule activators of protein phosphatase 2A exhibit robust cell-killing activity against five established glioblastoma cell lines, and nine patient-derived primary glioma cell lines. Collectively, these cell lines have heterogeneous genetic background, kinase inhibitor resistance profile and stemness properties; and they represent different clinical glioblastoma subtypes. Moreover, small molecule activators of protein phosphatase 2A were found to be superior to a range of kinase inhibitors in their capacity to kill patient-derived primary glioma cells. Oral dosing of either of the small molecule activators of protein phosphatase 2A significantly reduced growth of infiltrative intracranial glioblastoma tumours. DBK-1154, with both higher degree of brain/blood distribution, and more potent in vitro activity against all tested glioblastoma cell lines, also significantly increased survival of mice bearing orthotopic glioblastoma xenografts. In summary, this report presents a proof-of-principle data for blood–brain barrier—permeable tumour suppressor reactivation therapy for glioblastoma cells of heterogenous molecular background. These results also provide the first indications that protein phosphatase 2A reactivation might be able to challenge the current paradigm in glioblastoma therapies which has been strongly focused on targeting specific genetically altered cancer drivers with highly specific inhibitors. Based on demonstrated role for protein phosphatase 2A inhibition in glioblastoma cell drug resistance, small molecule activators of protein phosphatase 2A may prove to be beneficial in future glioblastoma combination therapies.

Amentoflavone Promotes Apoptosis in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer by Modulating Cancerous Inhibitor of PP2A.

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most common human malignancies. Amentoflavone (AF) is one of bioflavonoid compounds isolated from Selaginella tamariscina Spring. This study was designed to examine the effect of AF on NSCLC. Our results indicated that AF decreased cell viability of both H1299 and H358 cells. Colony formation assay also showed that AF was able to suppress the anchorage-independent growth of NSCLC cells. AF also triggered cell cycle arrest by downregulating cyclin D1, CDK4, and CDK6. The pro-apoptotic activity of AF was confirmed by Hoechst staining and flow cytometry. The effect of AF on activation of caspase-3, upregulation of Bax, and downregulation of Bcl-2 was examined by western blot. The anti-growth and pro-apoptotic activities of AF were further validated in xenograft murine model. iTRAQ assay showed that cancerous inhibitor of PP2A (CIP2A) expression was markedly downregulated by AF treatment in H1299 cells. In addition, qRT-PCR and western blot also showed that AF was able to dose-dependently inhibit CIP2A expression. Meanwhile, the activity of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) was enhanced by AF treatment. The mRNA and protein expression of CIP2A as well as PP2A activity in xenograft tumor tissue were examined, which indicated that the in vivo anticancer activity of AF was associated with downregulation of CIP2A and reactivation of PP2A. Moreover, our results showed that the anti-growth and pro-apoptotic activities of AF were augmented by CIP2A knockdown and attenuated by ectopic CIP2A expression. Our results indicated that AF exhibited anticancer activity in NSCLC by targeting CIP2A. Anat Rec, 302:2201-2210, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.

Precision Therapy for Aggressive Endometrial Cancer by Reactivation of Protein Phosphatase 2A.

Critically important to reducing uterine cancer mortality is the development of more effective therapy for aggressive endometrial cancers, including uterine serous cancer and uterine carcinosarcoma, which together account for over half of deaths due to endometrial cancer. About one-third of these aggressive endometrial cancers harbor mutations in the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) Aα scaffold subunit encoded by PPP2R1A In this issue, the study by Taylor and colleagues elucidates the role of a highly recurrent PP2A-Aα-subunit mutation PPP2R1A P179R as a biological driver of aggressive endometrial cancer. Compelling data demonstrate that the P179R mutation alters PP2A-Aα protein conformation, impairing holoenzyme formation and reducing PP2A phosphatase activity to promote endometrial cancer progression. Restoration of wild-type PPP2R1A in P179R-mutant endometrial cancer cells increases phosphatase activity and inhibits tumor growth in vivo Furthermore, a small-molecule activator of PP2A (SMAP) phenocopies restoration of wild-type PPP2R1A to suppress tumor growth. These promising results are an important advance toward effective precision therapy for aggressive endometrial cancer.See related article by Taylor et al., p. 4242.

The Highly Recurrent PP2A Aα-Subunit Mutation P179R Alters Protein Structure and Impairs PP2A Enzyme Function to Promote Endometrial Tumorigenesis.

Somatic mutation of the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) Aα-subunit gene PPP2R1A is highly prevalent in high-grade endometrial carcinoma. The structural, molecular, and biological basis by which the most recurrent endometrial carcinoma-specific mutation site P179 facilitates features of endometrial carcinoma malignancy has yet to be fully determined. Here, we used a series of structural, biochemical, and biological approaches to investigate the impact of the P179R missense mutation on PP2A function. Enhanced sampling molecular dynamics simulations showed that arginine-to-proline substitution at the P179 residue changes the protein's stable conformation profile. A crystal structure of the tumor-derived PP2A mutant revealed marked changes in A-subunit conformation. Binding to the PP2A catalytic subunit was significantly impaired, disrupting holoenzyme formation and enzymatic activity. Cancer cells were dependent on PP2A disruption for sustained tumorigenic potential, and restoration of wild-type Aα in a patient-derived P179R-mutant cell line restored enzyme function and significantly attenuated tumorigenesis and metastasis in vivo. Furthermore, small molecule-mediated therapeutic reactivation of PP2A significantly inhibited tumorigenicity in vivo. These outcomes implicate PP2A functional inactivation as a critical component of high-grade endometrial carcinoma disease pathogenesis. Moreover, they highlight PP2A reactivation as a potential therapeutic strategy for patients who harbor P179R PPP2R1A mutations. SIGNIFICANCE: This study characterizes a highly recurrent, disease-specific PP2A PPP2R1A mutation as a driver of endometrial carcinoma and a target for novel therapeutic development.See related commentary by Haines and Huang, p. 4009.

PC-12 Bone marrow microenvironment-induced miR-300 expression impairs natural killer cell proliferation and anti-tumor activity

Natural killer (NK) cells mediate immune responses against cancer; however, NK cell quantitative and functional defects are features of cancers including chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). As increased numbers of activated NK cells were found in CML patients in treatment-free remission, the understanding of the molecular events inhibiting NK proliferation and function may lead to the development of NK cell-based therapies against drug-resistant cancer stem cells. Because altered miRNA expression and inactivation of the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) tumor suppressor are also features of cancer, and SET-dependent PP2A inhibition is essential for NK cell function, we hypothesized that increased expression of miR-300, a miRNA with anti-proliferative activity, found inhibited in CML and targeting the PP2A inhibitor SET, accounts for impaired NK cell proliferation/activity. An initial analysis revealed that miR-300 levels were significantly higher in peripheral blood (PB) CD56+CD3-NK cells from CML patients at diagnosis compared to healthy individuals. As NK cell activity is regulated by the bone marrow microenvironment (BMM), we evaluated whether hypoxic conditions and/or cell-to-cell interaction influence NK cell proliferation and cytotoxic activity by modulating miR-300 intracellular levels. A marked and significant increase in miR-300 expression was detected in NK-92 and primary CD56+CD3-NK cells exposed to low O2 levels or cultured in the presence of conditioned medium (CM) or exosomes isolated from BM-derived primary mesenchymal stromal (MSC) and HS-5 MSC cells. As expected, increased miR-300 levels correlated with decreased SET levels and markedly reduced NK cell number. Interestingly, miR-300-induced growth inhibition was rescued in NK cells treated with CM/exosomes from HS-5 cells expressing an anti-miR-300 lentivirus. Notably, qRT-PCR indicated that miR-300 was contained in MSC exosomes. Functionally, exposure to MSCs (CM or exosomes) inhibited NK cell IL-12/IL-18-induced IFN-γ production and cytotoxic activity against K562 CML-BC cells in a miR-300-dependent manner. Accordingly, miR-300 lentiviruses and/or CpG-miR-300 oligonucleotides inhibited SET expression, reduced proliferation and suppressed spontaneous cytotoxicity of NK-92 and/or primary NK cells, likely through reactivation of PP2A. Because BM hypoxic conditions and MSCs significantly contribute to decreased NK cell number and cytotoxic activity through upregulation of miR-300, its genetic or pharmacologic inhibition may result in reactivation of NK cell activity against leukemic stem/progenitor cells.

The NMR‐based characterization of the FTY720‐SET complex reveals an alternative mechanism for the attenuation of the inhibitory SET‐PP2A interaction

The su(var)3-9, enhancer of zeste, trithorax (SET)/inhibitor 2 of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) oncoprotein binds and inhibits PP2A, composed of various isoforms of scaffolding, regulatory, and catalytic subunits. Targeting SET with a sphingolipid analog drug fingolimod (FTY720) or ceramide leads to the reactivation of tumor suppressor PP2A. However, molecular details of the SET-FTY720 or SET-ceramide, and mechanism of FTY720-dependent PP2A activation, remain unknown. Here, we report the first in solution examination of the SET-FTY720 or SET-ceramide complexes by NMR spectroscopy. FTY720-ceramide binding resulted in chemical shifts of residues residing at the N terminus of SET, preventing its dimerization or oligomerization. This then released SET from PP2ACα, resulting in PP2A activation, while monomeric SET remained associated with the B56γ. Our data also suggest that the PP2A holoenzyme, composed of PP2A-Aβ, PP2A-B56γ, and PP2ACα subunits, is selectively activated in response to the formation of the SET-FTY720 complex in A549 cells. Various PP2A-associated downstream effector proteins in the presence or absence of FTY720 were then identified by stable isotope labeling with amino cells in cell culture, including tumor suppressor nonmuscle myosin IIA. Attenuation of FTY720-SET association by point mutations of residues that are involved in FTY720 binding or dephosphorylation of SET at Serine 171, enhanced SET oligomerization and the formation of the SET-PP2A inhibitory complex, leading to resistance to FTY720-dependent PP2A activation.-De Palma, R. M., Parnham, S. R., Li, Y., Oaks, J. J., Peterson, Y. K., Szulc, Z. M., Roth, B. M., Xing, Y., Ogretmen, B. The NMR-based characterization of the FTY720-SET complex reveals an alternative mechanism for the attenuation of the inhibitory SET-PP2A interaction.